The relationship between humans and dogs goes back thousands of years. A fascinating example of this relationship is dogs being used as draft animals to pull sleds or carts. Sled dogs have been historically significant to many cultures and continue to be relevant in this day and age. This article will explore the history of sled dogs and how sled dogs continue to be an important part of many societies.
A sled dog is a dog that has been trained to pull either a sled or a cart. Dogs are fitted with harnesses that are attached to the sled or cart with a tether. Depending on the weight of the load and the distance they need to travel, dogs may pull individually or as a part of a team. Sleds are used to move people and objects across snowy terrain, while carts allow for movement across land. “Mushing” is the term used to describe the sport or transport method in which dogs provide the power for the transportation. Sled dogs are vital to the survival of many people, especially in terrains that are difficult to navigate in more modern ways. They also serve as a source of community pride and help keep communities active and employed.
There is evidence of dogs being used in central Serbia approximately 4,000 years ago as draft animals (animals used to pull heavy loads) (Coppinger, 1977), with more recent evidence suggesting sled dogs may have been used as far back as 9,000 years ago in the New Siberian Islands (Grimm, 2015). Dogs served as humans’ primary mode of transportation, protection, and companionship in northern, snow-covered climates for thousands of years.
In Alaska, archaeological evidence suggests dogs were harnessed to pull sleds by coastal Eskimo groups 500-1,500 years ago (McGhee, 1978). Sled dogs in Alaska would have been much smaller than the breeds later imported from Russia and other countries (Osgood, 1936).
It is believed that from 1840 to 1985, Russians influenced the dog sled culture in Alaska, sharing the knowledge of tandem hitch styles as opposed to each dog being hitched separately to the sled (Michael, 2019). During this period, sled dog use became much more apparent in the interior of Alaska (Michael, 2019).
From 1896 to 1940, the network of sled dog trails substantially expanded, and sled dog teams began to be used by non-natives, especially during the gold rush and for army expeditions (Wendt, 1999). During this period, it was also common for dog sled teams to work with the US postal service to deliver mail to remote locations (Alaska Geographic Society, 1987).
From 1941 to 1960, sled dogs continued to serve as a critical form of transportation for families and for hauling supplies across difficult terrain. They were also used by the military to assist emergency rescue teams.
In Norway, sled dogs historically had four main uses: Artic and Antarctic expeditions (in the early 20th century), sled dog ambulances (in Oslo and other cities from 1930s to 1990s), competitive racing, and recreational mushing (Knudsen, 2019). Other sled dog uses over the years have included transport of prospectors, trappers, doctors, and for commercial freighting (Andersen, 1992).
Today, sled dogs are still important for transport in some inaccessible areas, especially in rural Russia, Canada, Alaska, and Greenland. However, snowmobiles have begun to replace the use of dogs in some areas as they are easier to care for but can be cost prohibitive. In addition to general transport, sled dogs are still often used for trapping, hauling wood, supplies, and for racing during the winter months.
During the summer, sled dogs may be used as watch dogs, bear dogs, breeding dogs, or as family pets. It is thought that sled dog racing began in the late 1930’s and continues to be an important cultural event in many communities (Wendt, 1999). Some races are known globally such as the Iditarod and play an important role in tourism, bringing in people and money during the slow winter months (Jæger and Viken, 2014).
Any dog that is trained to pull a sled can be considered a sled dog, meaning there are no set breed standards for sled dogs. Many sled dogs are mixed breed dogs that have been breed for athletic traits. On average, sled dogs typically weigh 55 pounds, but can range from 30 to 70 pounds. The density of their coat can vary widely depending on the racing style (sprint or distance), geographic location, and breed makeup (Huson et al., 2010). In Norway, sled dogs are often Greenland dogs, Siberian huskies, or German Shorthaired Pointers (Knudsen, 2019). Alaskan sled dogs are typically mixed breeds. With genetic testing, it was estimated that these existing mixed breed sled dogs contain Alaskan Malamute, Siberian Husky, Pointer, Saluki, and Anatolian Shepherd influences (Huson et al., 2010). Different breeds are known for having different traits. For enhanced endurance, Alaskan Malamute and Siberian Huskies are often used. For speed, the Pointer and Saluki breeds are utilized. For a great work ethic, Anatolian Shepherds are incorporated (Huson et al., 2010). In general, larger breeds are used for hauling, while smaller dogs are used for speed in racing. Some other well known sled dog breeds include the Samoyed and the Chinook.
There are several lineages of sled dogs, each optimized for different racing styles or other purposes (Huson et al., 2010). There are two main styles of races, long or short distance. Long distance races can span several hundred miles to over a thousand miles long like the Yukon Quest and the Iditarod. These long-distance races take place over multiple days. Sprint races are much shorter and are typically around 30 miles in distance. With proper care, food, and rest sled, dogs can cover vast distances across difficult terrain. It’s no wonder these races attract people from around the world to witness such amazing achievements.
The size of a sled dog team depends on a number of factors. Historically, teams for delivering mail consisted of teams of 5 or 6 dogs bred for speed. Teams for hauling large loads were typically much bigger, around 7 to 11 large and strong dogs. However, teams would sometimes reach over 20 dogs for extra large loads. Local miners and native people often had smaller teams to meet their needs, with teams usually consisting of 2 to 5 dogs (Herron, 1909). For the Iditarod, mushers may have teams of up to 14 dogs, but they typically trade off dogs throughout the race. The racers typically finish the race with smaller faster teams, and they are allowed to finish the race with as few as five dogs.
There are a number of sled dogs that have captured wide public recognition and have starred in films and other media. These include:
Balto is arguably one of the most well-known sled dogs. He was a black Siberian Husky that played a significant role in leading a team of sled dogs on the final leg of the 1925 serum run to Nome in order to combat an outbreak of diphtheria disease (Salisbury and Salisbury, 2003). There was an animated movie released in 1995 about Balto’s life and a bronze statue of Balto stands in New York City’s Central Park in his memory.
Many argue that Togo deserves more fame than Balto, as it is believed he had a larger contribution during the serum run to Nome. In 2001, a statue of Togo was placed in New York City’s Seward Park and in 2019 Disney released a movie about his life using updated information from historians.
This pair of sled dogs received an outpouring of media attention due to an unfortunate situation. Severe weather conditions had prevented the 1958 Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition from bringing their 15 dogs home, leaving them chained with very little food. Taro and Jiro were the only dogs to survive until the following spring when researchers could return. Their bodies were taxidermied and are on display for public viewing.
In summary, sled dogs have played an important role in society over the years. They have allowed people in remote, snowy locations to have transportation, access to goods, and a way to make a living. In modern times, sled dogs continue to serve many more remote areas of the world and also contribute to tourism through racing. Many individual dogs have made an impact through their heroic actions and serve as a way to tell the story of these remarkable human-dog relationships that have existed for thousands of years.
Works Cited
Alaska Geographic Society. South/Southeast Alaska. Vol. 14, no. 2. Alaska Geographic Society, 1987.
Andersen, David B. The use of dog teams and the use of subsistence-caught fish for feeding sled dogs in the Yukon river drainage, Alaska. Juneau, AK: Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence, 1992.
Coppinger, Lorna, and International Sled Dog Racing Association. The World of Sled Dogs: From Siberia to Sport Racing. Howell Book House, 1977.
Grimm, David. "Dawn of the dog." (2015): 274-279.
Herron, Joseph Sutherland. Explorations in Alaska, 1899: For an All-American Overland Route from Cook Inlet, Pacific Ocean, to the Yukon. Vol. 138. US Government Printing Office, 1901.
Huson, Heather J., Heidi G. Parker, Jonathan Runstadler, and Elaine A. Ostrander. "A genetic dissection of breed composition and performance enhancement in the Alaskan sled dog." BMC genetics 11, no. 1 (2010): 1-14.
Jæger, Kari, and Arvid Viken. "Sled dog racing and tourism development in Finnmark. A symbiotic relationship." Tourism destination development. Turns and tactics (2014): 131-150.
Knudsen, Inge Bugge. "From Polar Exploration to Sled Dog Racing. A Brief Overview of some Important Elements in Norwegian Sled Dog History." Dog Sledding in Norway: Multidisciplinary Research Perspectives 28 (2019): 15.
McGhee, Robert. Canadian arctic prehistory. 1978.
Michael, Henry N. Lieutenant Zagoskin's Travels in Russian America 1842–1844. University of Toronto Press, 2019.
Osgood, Cornelius. Contributions to the Ethnography of the Kutchin. Vol. 14. New Haven: Published for the Section of Anthropology, Department of the Social Sciences, Yale University, by the Yale University Press; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1936.
Salisbury, Gay, and Laney Salisbury. The cruellest miles: the heroic story of dogs and men in a race against an epidemic. WW Norton & Company, 2003.
Wendt, R. "Alaska dog mushing guide: facts and legends." Fairbanks: Goldstream Publications, Fifth (1999).
]]>You may notice all sorts of changes as your dog ages. They may get grey hairs on their muzzle, their hearing might not be as good, and they may develop issues with their vision. One of those common issues is cataracts. Cataracts are often a normal part of the aging process for a dog’s eyes. So, what can be done?
A dog’s eye is very similar to the human eye. The outer, clear surface is called the cornea and the colored part is called the iris. Under the iris lies the lens, whose main job is to focus light onto the back of the eye, or the retina. The retina is the part of the eye that is responsible for turning light into images that are perceived by the brain. Between the lens and the retina is the vitreous chamber which contains proteins floating around in water.
Cataracts refer to a cloudiness that can develop on the lens. Since the lens is responsible for focusing light, it needs to remain crystal clear in order to work properly. Any cloudiness of the lens can decrease its function.
Cataracts in dogs may happen for a number of reasons, some of which are preventable.
The cloudiness of a cataract is caused by proteins in the eye clumping together on and in the lens. This is something that can happen as dogs age.
UV light from the sun can cause damage that increases the clumping ability of the eye proteins. This usually takes some time to occur, so it tends to happen to dogs later in life.
High blood sugar levels can lead to abnormal cellular metabolism in the lens, causing cataracts to pop up quickly if diabetes isn’t managed properly.
Occasionally, injuries to the eye can lead to inflammation that leads to cataracts.
Some breeds are more predisposed to cataracts than others. Cataracts due to a genetic cause tend to show up earlier in life than those by other causes.
Since there is a genetic component to cataracts in some breeds, purebreds and mixes of those breeds will be more prone to developing cataracts. Those breeds include: Cocker Spaniels, Poodles, Yorkshire Terriers, Boston Terriers, Australian Shepherds, and Labrador Retrievers, to name a few.
Also, dogs with diabetes are more prone to cataracts, especially if their diabetes isn’t managed properly.
Most of the time, you’ll be able to actually see cataracts in your dog’s eyes. They will look like cloudiness in what used to be a clear eye. Other signs include you noticing your dog having trouble catching treats or the ball, or they seem to stumble when climbing up or down stairs. They may also bump into things or spend more time smelling objects rather than looking at them.
If cataracts remain small, they will have little impact on your dog’s vision, but you may notice small deficits especially depending on where the cataracts are located on the lens. Generally, cataracts grow slowly and gives your dog time to compensate for changes in their vision. However, there are instances when dogs with diabetes develop cataracts very quickly and may show signs of visual impairment.
With most types of cataracts, dogs are able to see fairly normally until the cataract covers 30% of the lens. When the lens coverage is more than 50%, most dogs will start to show some symptoms of vision loss. Dogs will go blind in the eye when 100% of the lens is covered by a cataract.
Cataracts of old age and UV damage tend to come on fairly gradually. This gives your dog a chance to adjust to any loss of vision. For dogs with diabetic cataracts that come on more quickly, they may have more trouble adjusting and start to show signs of vision loss much earlier.
If you notice any cloudiness in your dog’s eyes or feel like they just aren’t seeing things as clearly as they once did, take them to see your veterinarian. Often, veterinarians can even diagnose cataracts during regular exams before you notice any changes in your pup.
The veterinarian will shine a light into your dog’s eyes to try to visualize the retina. Cataracts will block some of that light, not allowing full visualization of the back of the eye. Your vet may then perform blood work or other diagnostics to look for underlying causes of cataracts.
Treatment will depend on which category of cataract your dog has, as well as the cause of it and the progression. Cataracts fall into four main categories.
Incipient cataracts are small, covering 15% or less of the lens. They usually don’t cause any problems with vision.
This stage of cataract covers about 30% of the lens, which can be in different areas. There is usually very little visual impairment.
These cataracts cover the entire lens and cause near blindness or complete blindness.
This occurs when the lens starts to shrink and appear wrinkled.
Incipient cataracts usually don’t require treatment because they are not affecting vision. However, monitoring the eyes for further cataracts growth is recommended. Immature cataracts are typically not treated as well since they are not causing blindness.
Mature forms of cataracts can be removed with surgery by a veterinary ophthalmologist. The procedure requires general anesthesia and removal of the affected lens. A new plastic lens is inserted. Most dogs recover quickly from surgery but do require anti-inflammatory eye drops for weeks to months following the procedure.
Since there is a genetic component to cataract formation, it’s hard to prevent them completely in those breeds that are more prone to them. However, there are screening tests available for breeding animals to help decrease the likelihood of passing cataracts to offspring.
In dogs with diabetes, proper management with insulin, diet, and exercise can help decrease the formation of cataracts. Strict attention and regular monitoring need to happen to keep blood sugar levels in check so that it can’t damage a dog’s eyes.
Exposure to the sun should be limited, especially in breeds that are prone. Always provide your pup with shade or even doggie sunglasses or hats to keep those harmful rays out of their eyes when outside.
A diagnosis of cataracts is not the end of the world for you or your pup. It just means you’ll have to take some extra precautions to help them navigate their world the best they can. The first question you’ll need to ask yourself is if surgery is an option. This will depend on the cause of your dog’s cataracts and their progression. Eye surgery is often expensive, so you will need to decide whether this is something within your budget. You will also want to consider your dog’s age and other health issues before you put them through surgery. Surgical removal carries a great prognosis, but it isn’t for every dog, so be sure to discuss this option with your veterinarian if you’re interested.
If you choose not to have your dog undergo cataract surgery, it’s not over. There are things you can do to help increase their comfort with vision loss. First of all, get any underlying conditions under control, if applicable. Make sure diabetes is properly managed and your dog is kept out of the sun as much as possible.
Next, don’t make any sudden changes in your pup’s environment. Once they get used to a certain furniture arrangement or route around the neighborhood, they’ll be able to navigate fairly effectively even with major visual impairment. However, rearranging the furniture or taking them on a different hiking path can create safety issues and make them nervous or uncomfortable. You can definitely be their seeing eye person, but don’t underestimate a near blind or blind dog’s ability to get themselves around.
For dogs that develop cataracts more quickly, you may need to spend more time showing them around than other dogs. But they will still be able to become accustomed to decreased vision and do fine for the long run.
Cataracts are often accompanied by some inflammation which can be painful. Cataracts may also lead to glaucoma later on, which is very painful. Because of this, many veterinarians will prescribe anti-inflammatory eye drops to help relieve your dog’s discomfort as their cataracts progress. These drops are typically a lifelong treatment, but regular use can make a difference in your dog’s comfort.
Cataracts are a common sign of aging in most dogs. They can be brought on by a number of reasons, including diabetes, injuries, and most commonly genetics. Most dogs will live just fine with some amount of cataracts, while others may eventually go blind from them. Surgical removal is the only cure, but this isn’t a feasible option for every dog. Knowing how to make your dog comfortable with cataracts will help them age more gracefully and live as comfortably as possible.
]]>When done properly, crate training can be a useful management tool for housetraining puppies and for keeping dogs safe in your absence. This article will discuss how to ensure time spent in the crate is a positive and relaxing experience for your dog along with step-by-step guidance on how to effectively crate train your puppy or dog.
Crate training involves teaching your dog to be comfortable while being confined inside a crate. Crates can give dogs their own safe space to relax in especially in households with other animals or children. Some people believe dogs naturally enjoy crates because they are denning animals and crates emulate a den by being dark, snug, and secure. However, this belief is contested in the scientific community (Borchelt, 1984). Dogs would be more likely to raise their puppies in open air nest with their littermates (Allen, 1979). So while crates may not mimic a dog’s natural environment, they can still be used responsibly as a training tool and as a safe location for your dog to relax in.
Many people begin crate training their dog when they are puppies. Crates can be an effective tool during potty training. Dogs have a natural instinct to not soil in their nest, therefore crates can be used to prevent accidents indoors. When leaving young dogs alone at home, a crate can provide peace of mind. Confining dogs can help prevent them from getting into potentially dangerous items such as cleaning chemicals, electrical cords, toxic plants, or medicines when you can’t be there to supervise. When crated with appropriate toys to keep them busy, such as a bone or a stimulating puzzle toy, it can help prevent them from finding other things to destroy such as furniture or shoes. Providing a crate for your dog to sleep in overnight can also help them sleep through the night and can help keep them out of trouble while you are sleeping. A dog that is trained to be comfortable in a crate will better tolerate certain activities throughout their lives that require them to be contained. This includes being kennelled during vet visits, grooming appointments, hotel stays, or if they have to be confined while healing from a surgery or injury. Crates can also be used for safe travel in a car.
Crates come in a number of styles and are most commonly made of metal, plastic, or fabric. When purchasing a crate, you should consider your dog’s preferences, their size, and what features work best with your lifestyle. Crates should be large enough for an adult dog to comfortably stand up, lie down on their side, and to turn around. There should also be enough room to provide them with water. If the crate is too large it may increase the chances of your dog soiling within the crate. Some crates come with a divider so they can be sized appropriately as your puppy grows. Some dogs prefer dark enclosed spaces and plastic travel crates may be a good option for them. Others enjoy being able to see their surroundings and metal wire crates may be a good fit. Design features such as being collapsible, having handles or wheels can make crates more functional depending on your lifestyle. There are even crates that have been designed to look like a piece of furniture in your home (e.g., an end table that doubles as a crate).
It is critically important that crates are never used as a way to punish your dog. Crates should always be a calm and relaxing experience for your dog and should be associated with positive experiences. A dog that is visibly upset (whining, barking, or attempting to escape) should not be left in the crate because the experience can contribute to increased feelings of anxiety and frustration. Similarly, dogs should never be forced into their crate. Instead, they should be trained to voluntarily enter and settle. Some people may crate their dog if they are destructive to their home as a symptom of separation anxiety. This should be avoided as crates have been shown to further contribute to the severity of their separation anxiety (Schwartz, 2003).
Whether or not a dog is comfortable being left in their crate depends on how well they were crate trained and their individual personality and preferences. Dogs that were taught to view crates as safe, comforting spots will feel more comfortable in their crate. Otherwise, dogs may feel anxiety and panic when forced into confinement (Overall, 2003). Dogs that are panicking in their crate may bite at the bars on the crate or salivate excessively. Alternative management strategies should be implemented for dogs that are not comfortable being crated. This could include confining dogs to a small area within the house such as a bedroom or the kitchen. Baby gates are a great solution for keeping dogs safe when left alone while providing them more freedom of movement and room for activities. It’s important to remember that dogs require exercise and stimulation throughout the day and appropriate breaks or toys should be provided if dogs have to be left in their crate for an extended period of time.
It is unnatural for dogs to be confined for long periods of time. Dogs require physical and mental stimulation to live happy lives. Spending too much time inside a crate can hinder a dog’s social development and greatly reduces their exposure to various stimuli. Young puppies should be let out of their crate at least every 3 to 4 hours to relieve themselves, although more frequent outings are recommended. Adult dogs that are over the age of 1 should be let out at least once every 6 to 8 hours (Gunter, 2018). If your dog needs to be confined for longer periods, such as during working hours, alternative solutions should be explored. Doggy day cares are a great resource for dogs that don’t do well being left home alone all day. Dog walkers can also greatly improve your dog’s well being by giving them a midday walk and play time.
Crate training is most effective when dogs are introduced to them at a young age, and when reward-based training is conducted gradually at your dog’s own pace. The following steps can be followed to help your dog view crates as a calming and safe environment (Lindsay, 2013). Make sure your dog is completely calm and comfortable before advancing to the next step. Signs that you moved too fast with your dog include whining, barking, or other signs of panic or discomfort.
Set up the crate in a social area of your home such as near the kitchen or in the family room. Place comfortable bedding items inside the crate. You may even consider placing clothing items that smell like you in the crate to provide familiar smells to your dog. Hide treats around and inside the crate or consider placing their food and water dish outside the crate. Leave the crate door open and allow your dog to explore on their own. Let them sniff around the crate and explore inside the crate if they’re feeling brave enough. Verbal praise or more treats can be added to help your dog make positive associations with their crate. Once your dog seems comfortable with this new item in their home and entered the crate on their own, then you may advance to the next step.
During this step you will begin enticing your dog into their crate by using treat bribes. Start by tossing high value treats near the entrance of the crate. Once they build confidence in retrieving their reward, progressively toss the treat further into the rear of the crate. After your dog retrieves the treats at the rear of the crate and turn around to leave, give them additional treats and praise. Always allow the dog to enter and exit on their own and do not close them in at this stage of training. Once your dog is confident retrieving treats from the rear of their crate and are calm upon entering and exiting, you may advance to the next step.
Associate the arm motion of throwing a treat with asking your dog to enter their kennel. For every few treat throws, do one throw without a treat. If your dog enters with just the arm motion, heavily reward them after they enter and turn around. Gradually reduce the number of treats thrown and instead focus on rewarding your dog when entering the crate with just the arm motion. Once your dog reliably enters their crate with your arm motion alone, move on to step 4.
Add a verbal cue such as “crate” when performing the arm motion.
After your dog enters the crate on cue, momentarily shut the gate. Give them treats through the gate and plenty of verbal praise. Immediately open the gate and let the dog exit. Start with only confining them for a few seconds and repeat with greater intervals. If the dog is comfortable with the gate closed for a few seconds, work up to periods of minutes. Provide the dog with a high value chew toy when being left in the crate. Stay in the same room with your pet while crated so they know they are not alone. Repeat these training exercises multiple times a day. If your dog is settling comfortably for close to half an hour, you may begin getting them comfortable in other areas of the home that they may have to be crated, such as the bedroom. If your dog is able to remain calm while crated for over 30 minutes with you present, then you can advance to step 6.
Begin crating your dog and leaving them alone for short periods of time. Your first few outings should be brief. Consider crating your dog with their favourite chew toy before going on a walk around the block and letting them out. Gradually increase the duration of your absence. It may be helpful to set up a recording device while you are gone to be absolutely sure your dog is remaining relaxed while you’re gone. To help keep their arousal levels low when being crated, keep your leaving and arrival low-key.
Crate training is considered successful when your dog views their crate as a safe place to relax. It’s important to be patient with your dog during the training process and to never advance before they are ready. Its normal for crate training to take many days to weeks.
With proper, positive reinforcement training, crates can be a useful management resource for your dog. They can be especially helpful for housetraining young puppies and can help keep your dog safe when left alone. While crate training can be a great tool, it should not be used for extended periods of time or as a way to confine an already anxious dog. As dogs age, they should be granted access to increased areas of the home once they are potty trained and know which items are approved for chewing on or destroying. Having a dog that is comfortable in a crate during travel or for veterinary or grooming procedures can improve their quality of life tremendously.
Works Cited
Allen, Durward L. Wolves of Minong: their vital role in a wild community [Isle Royale National Park, Michigan]. Houghton Mifflin, 1979.
Borchelt, P. L. "Development of behaviour of the dog during maturity." In Nutrition and behaviour in dogs and cats: proceedings, First Nordic Symposium on Small Animal Veterinary Medicine, Oslo, September 15-18, 1982/editor RS Anderson. Oxford: Pergamon Press, c1984., 1984.
Gunter, Lisa. Understanding the impacts of breed identity, post-adoption and fostering interventions, & behavioral welfare of shelter dogs. Arizona State University, 2018.
Lindsay, Steven R., ed. Handbook of applied dog behavior and training, procedures and protocols. Vol. 3. John Wiley & Sons, 2013.
Overall, K. L. "Separation anxiety: not all dogs crated or kenneled successfully." DVM Newsmagazine 34 (2003): 20S-22S.
Schwartz, Stefanie. "Separation anxiety syndrome in dogs and cats." Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 222, no. 11 (2003): 1526-1532.
]]>Anyone who has spent time around dogs can tell you that they love to roll. Whether it is for belly rubs or because they found something stinky in the grass, rolling is part of many dogs’ daily routines. As dog parents it may be difficult to understand why dogs seek out stinky things to roll in, and we may wish to prevent this behavior. This article will explore what drives dogs to roll, whether rolling can be a sign of a health problem, and how to alter this behavior if you choose.
There are a number of reasons why your dog might roll. The reasons can be attributed to the following categories:
Dogs may roll over to communicate with other dogs or people. Rolling over and exposing their bellies may indicate submission, that they want to play, or that they trust you.
Rolling around on the ground likely feels good to our dogs. It can help relieve a sore back or help scratch hard to reach areas.
Dogs may find interesting scents in their environment and may wish to cover themselves in those scents for a number of reasons. Dogs may also roll or rub themselves on the ground or objects to leave their scent behind.
If you are outside playing with your dog and they stop to roll around in grass, then it could be due to excitement. Another reason that dogs may roll in the grass is simply because it feels good! Rolling is a great way for dogs to scratch those hard-to-reach areas along their back. Dogs may also roll in the grass to leave their scent behind. Many carnivores will scent mark throughout their territory to communicate. They do so by rubbing glandular regions of their cheek, shoulder, and side against objects or the ground (Sillero-Zubiri, Claudio, and Macdonald, 1998).
A source of frustration for many dog parents is that their dog will jump at the opportunity to roll around in grass right after a bath. This could be due to the scent of the shampoo used. Many shampoos contain scents that smell wonderful to us, but unappealing to our dogs. After a bath, dogs may roll around outside to try to get rid of the smell, or to replace it with a smell that they find more attractive.
When dogs are happy and comfortable, they may roll around on the ground to help burn off some of their built-up energy. Some dogs may even roll on top of their toys. When dogs are playing with one another, it has been shown that rolling over may be a beneficial defensive and offensive move. First, rolling over during play fighting may help dogs avoid bites to their sensitive necks. Second, rolling during play may help the dog launch a play attack on their playmate (Norman et al., 2015). In other cases, dogs may use rolling over to facilitate play with their friends, similar to how dogs will play bow when they want to play with someone (Bekoff, 1974). Dogs may also communicate submission or appeasement by rolling over and exposing their bellies (Packard, 2003). This shows others that they are non-threatening and mean no harm. Submissive rolling over may be accompanied by other postures such as flattening their ears, averting their gaze, and tucking their tail (Schnekel, 1967).
Dogs may also roll around in grass because they found a spot with an interesting smell. A lot of times these smells come from other animals’ feces or dead animals. Dogs evolved from wolves, and it is believed that these carnivores might roll in vegetation to mask their smell, making them less detectable to their prey when they are hunting. This may also help protect them from being detected by other predators. Other experts believe that wolves, and likely dogs too, roll in scents they find to bring back information to the rest of the pack, such as information on a fresh kill or the scent of prey animals that are present in the area. While humans rely on mostly visual and auditory cues to communicate (e.g., cell phones and television), dogs rely heavily on scent for their communication. Since dogs and their ancestors are scavengers, they are evolutionarily drawn to smells like rotting carcasses. Stinky poop likely falls within this scent range that dogs are attracted to. Some believe that by rolling in cow or horse manure, canines may make themselves smell more like a grazing animal, making them less threatening to prey (Jenkins, 2007). Another theory is that groups of dogs are motivated to smell similar to one another and will roll in the same scent to promote group cohesion. Researchers have divided scents that trigger scent rubbing/rolling in carnivores into five categories:
You may find it comforting to know that dogs are not alone with this smelly habit. Scent rolling has been observed or studied in a wide array of carnivore species (Reiger, 1979). This incudes coyotes, jackals, wolves, African wild dogs, foxes, bears, coatis, wolverines, pine martens, mongooses, hyenas, leopards, lynx, pumas, and panthers. The frequency of scent rolling performed varies between species, as does which body areas they prefer to rub (Reiger, 1979). Some carnivores selectively scent rub using a few body areas, while others, similar to dogs when they roll, may scent rub using their whole bodies.
In some cases, we may wish to prevent our dogs from rolling, especially if they are drawn to extra stinky locations such as poop or dead animals. Rolling, especially if it is done in cat poop, may potentially expose humans to pathogens such as Toxoplasma when we come into contact with our dogs (Frenkel et al., 2003).
In most instances however, it is important to realize that rolling is a completely natural behavior that is driven by instinct. Therefore, we should never use punishment to stop this behavior. Instead, if we anticipate that our dog is about to roll in something stinky, we can redirect the behavior by using treats or an exciting toy to help them change their mind. Some lawns or gardens may be treated with fertilizers or pesticides that can be irritating to our dog’s skin so we may need to use distractions to prevent them from rolling in these areas. If your dog is left out in the yard, make sure the yard remains clear of poop or dead animals to help keep your dog smelling their best. Furthermore, if your dog rolls immediately after a bath, consider using unscented shampoo to see if it makes a difference.
Most of the time, rolling is a harmless natural behavior that dogs perform. However, there are a few health issues that could cause rolling behavior in dogs.
Ticks on your dog’s skin may cause irritation, triggering them to roll to try to remove the pests from their body. If you find ticks on your dog, make sure you carefully remove them and clean the bite area. Make sure your dog is on a preventative to prevent future bites (Ferrolho et al., 2017).
When fleas bite our dogs, a small amount of their saliva is injected into their skin. This can cause an itchy response in some dogs (Scheidt, 1988). Dogs may roll to try to relieve the itchiness caused by fleas. If you suspect your dog has fleas, talk to your vet to determine a treatment plan, and make sure your dog is on a preventative.
Both seasonal allergies and food sensitivities can cause dogs to experience atopic dermatitis (Chesney, 2002). This uncomfortable skin sensation can lead to increased licking, scratching, and rolling behaviors. Working with a vet can help your dog find relief from these symptoms.
Fungal infections, such as a yeast infection, can also make your dog feel itchy and may cause them to rub or roll to try to find relief.
Just as with any other behavior, rolling that is performed abnormally frequent or at a high intensity may be classified as an obsessive behavior. Working with a certified behaviorist could help curb this abnormal behavior and may help provide your dog with healthier coping mechanisms.
Rolling is usually a harmless way dogs use to communicate and interact with their world. The behavior seems to be instinctual and passed down from their wolf ancestor. However, in some rare cases, rolling may be a warning sign of a health issue that requires treatment from your veterinarian.
Enjoying a fun rolling session
Works Cited
Bekoff, Marc. "Social play in coyotes, wolves, and dogs." Bioscience 24, no. 4 (1974): 225-230.
Chesney, C. J. "Food sensitivity in the dog: a quantitative study." Journal of Small Animal Practice 43, no. 5 (2002): 203-207.
Ferrolho, Joana, Gustavo S. Sanches, Joana Couto, Sandra Antunes, and Ana Domingos. "What Makes Your Dog Itch? Maybe It Is the Kennel Tick!." Frontiers for young minds (2017).
Frenkel, Jacob Karl, David S. Lindsay, Brent B. Parker, and Mike Dobesh. "Dogs as possible mechanical carriers of Toxoplasma, and their fur as a source of infection of young children." International Journal of Infectious Diseases 7, no. 4 (2003): 292-293.
Jenkins, Steve. Dogs and cats. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2007.
Norman, Kerri, Sergio Pellis, Louise Barrett, and S. Peter Henzi. "Down but not out: Supine postures as facilitators of play in domestic dogs." Behavioural processes 110 (2015): 88-95.
Packard, Jane M. "2. Wolf Behavior: Reproductive, Social, and Intelligent." In Wolves, pp. 35-65. University of Chicago Press, 2010.
Reiger, Ingo. "Scent rubbing in carnivores." Carnivore 2, no. 1 (1979): 17-25.
Scheidt, Vicki Jo. "Flea allergy dermatitis." Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 18, no. 5 (1988): 1023-1042.
Schenkel, Rudolf. "Submission: its features and function in the wolf and dog." American Zoologist 7, no. 2 (1967): 319-329.
Sillero-Zubiri, Claudio, and David W. Macdonald. "Scent-marking and territorial behaviour of Ethiopian wolves Canis simensis." Journal of Zoology 245, no. 3 (1998): 351-361.
]]>A dog park is a fenced area where dogs are allowed to be off leash. The first public dog park was created in 1983 (Richards, 2008) and their popularity continues to increase with both public and private options for dog owners to explore (Lee et al., 2009; Jackson, 2012). Dog parks give urban dogs the opportunity to exercise and play off leash and to meet new dogs and people. It also allows dog owners to interact with people within their community that have similar interests (Batch et al., 2001). While dog parks can be an excellent place to allow your dog to have fun, they are not without risks. By understanding your dog’s personality and improving your understanding of dog behavior, you can ensure that your visit to the dog park is a safe and positive experience.
Before taking your dog to the dog park, there are a few things you should consider. Before any dog enters a dog park they should:
Large groups of unfamiliar dogs can be exciting or frightening depending on your dog’s personality and social history. Almost all dogs will display some stress-related behaviors in a dog park due to the arousing nature of the environment. These behaviors could include licking their snout or lifting a paw (Carrier et al., 2013). Dogs, just like people, can have introverted or extroverted personality types. On average, dogs within a park will spend about 17% of their time interacting with other dogs (Iotchev et al., 2019), with extroverted dogs spending more time interacting on average (Carrier et al., 2013). As dogs age, they typically prefer to spend less time interacting with other dogs (Iotchev et al., 2019). Dogs with less outgoing personality types may display signs of fear or discomfort such as showing a lowered posture. For the welfare of these particular dogs, alternatives to dog parks should be considered, as the park will likely cause unnecessary stress (Carrier et al., 2003). If you own a dog that copes well with the active environment at the dog park, they likely benefit from the exercise and social interactions they get to experience (Carrier et al., 2003).
There is a wealth of information on the importance of socializing your young puppy to ensure they grow up to be well rounded adults. However, the dog park is not an ideal location for socialization and could expose your puppy to illness or put them at risk of injury. Most puppies won’t receive all of their vaccines until 14 weeks of age. Before this period they are at risk of catching a potentially life-threatening illness through interacting with other dogs. Furthermore, when socializing a puppy, the quality of the interactions is incredibly important. Dog parks can sometimes be unpredictable environments and could result in long-term damaging effects on your puppy if they have a negative experience. Instead, puppy owners should look for play dates with dogs that they know are good natured and relaxed to give their puppy positive social interactions to help set them up for success in life.
By observing your dog at the dog park, you can determine whether your dog enjoys themselves in that environment. If your dog appears happy and energetic and seeks out social interaction with other dogs, then they are most likely enjoying the dog park. Watch for signs of stress that could indicate your dog would rather not be placed in that situation. Signs of stress or discomfort include a tucked tail, hunched or lowered posture, lifting a front paw, licking their snout, yawning, running away from other dogs, or pulling away from attempted human contact (Horowitz, 2009). Whether your dog enjoys the dog park will depend on your dog’s personality, but it could also be affected by the other dogs at the park. Your dog may love interacting with certain individuals but may not enjoy themselves when a particular bully is around.
For even the most social and outgoing dogs, a daily trip to the dog park can be too much. Dogs that go to the dog park frequently may risk becoming over-aroused around other dogs. Dogs that always get to run off leash and engage in fast-paced play may become frustrated when they encounter dogs on a leash. This could lead to reactivity and aggression issues. A well socialized dog should be able to play appropriately at the park on occasion and should be able to remain calm on a leash around other dogs. While there is no hard-and-fast rule as to how often your dog should visit the dog park, it is typically recommended that they don’t go more than once a week.
Keep an eye on your pup when playing at the dog park and look for behavioral cues that your dog is getting tired and is ready for a break. Stress signs such as snout licking, yawning, or panting when not hot are good indicators that your dog is ready to go home. They may also try to avoid interactions with other dogs and may be more likely to display signs of agonism when they have had enough play time. This could include growling, baring their teeth, snapping, biting, lunging, or chasing away another dog (Horowitz, 2009; Scott and Fuller, 1965). It is always a good idea to pay close attention to your dog’s behavior. That way you can remove them from the park and take them home when they are ready and prevent any potential escalated aggressive interactions.
On the flip side, there are many signs that your dog is enjoying their play time with other dogs. Dogs use play signals to initiate play with others and to show that they are non-threatening (Bekoff, 1995). These include behaviors such as exaggerated loose or bouncy movements, play bowing, leaping, nosing or bumping into other dogs, soft biting, or pawing (Horowitz, 2009).
One thing you need to be prepared for at the dog park is the potential for impolite play. Impolite play could include one-sided play, bullying, a large dog overpowering a small dog, mounting, or aggressive behavior. When at the dog park, you should always remain vigilant of your dog to make sure they are engaging in appropriate play, and to help get them out of situations that make them uncomfortable. Thankfully, aggression or other inappropriate behaviors are rare occurrences in dog parks (Shyan et al., 2003; Howse et al., 2018), but if they do occur you should be prepared to intervene. If you notice your dog is becoming overstimulated and is becoming pushy with other dogs, leash them and remove them from the park for a while to allow them to calm down. It is a good idea to keep dogs away from the entrance of the park as this can help prevent dogs from ganging up on newcomers. Although typically rare, some dogs may attempt to mount other dogs at the park, if the other dog or owner is uncomfortable by this, you should intervene and prevent this behavior from occurring (Walsh et al., 2011). Finally, you should familiarize yourself with how to safely break up a dog fight in the chance that one does occur. This often involves grabbing the dogs rear legs, lifting them up, and pulling them up and away from one another.
If you happen to have a dog that does not enjoy dog parks do not worry! There are plenty of other options for socialization and exercise that are more controlled and safer for your pet. Setting up play dates with a familiar dog is a great way for dogs to socialize in a lower stress environment. If you do not have a fenced in yard there may be options near you to rent one. Some dog parks offer private fenced areas for dogs to have play dates with familiar friends, or if you have a reactive or aggressive dog that needs off leash time without any other dogs around. There is even a platform called “Sniffspot” that allows individuals to rent their fenced yard to others in the community. It’s sort of like Airbnb but for dog-safe fenced areas. Finally, dog training classes offer great environments for dogs to get exercise and social interaction in a less chaotic environment. This is an excellent way for puppies to learn how to interact with other dogs and is a great way to meet potentially life-long friends.
In summary, dog parks can be a valuable place for your dog to get exercise and play time with other dogs and people. They also serve as great community locations for locals with similar interests to get to know one another and to get outside and exercise. Being able to read your dog’s body language and behavior can help ensure that they are feeling comfortable and having fun at the dog park. By remaining vigilant, you can ensure that your dog avoids any unsafe interactions and gets the opportunity to leave when they had enough play time. For some dogs, the dog park may be too much for them. Consider private fenced areas or more controlled environments for these individuals to meet their social needs.
Works Cited
Batch, Eric, Matt Hale, and Ellen Palevsky. "The case for space: Expanding recreational opportunities for dog owners and their pets." (2001).
Bekoff, Marc. "Play signals as punctuation: The structure of social play in canids." Behaviour 132, no. 5-6 (1995): 419-429.
Carrier, Lydia Ottenheimer, Amanda Cyr, Rita E. Anderson, and Carolyn J. Walsh. "Exploring the dog park: Relationships between social behaviours, personality and cortisol in companion dogs." Applied Animal Behaviour Science 146, no. 1-4 (2013): 96-106.
Horowitz, Alexandra. "Attention to attention in domestic dog (Canis familiaris) dyadic play." Animal Cognition 12, no. 1 (2009): 107-118.
Howse, Melissa S., Rita E. Anderson, and Carolyn J. Walsh. "Social behaviour of domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) in a public off-leash dog park." Behavioural processes 157 (2018): 691-701.
Iotchev, Ivaylo Borislavov, Anna Egerer, Serena Grafe, András Adorján, and Enikő Kubinyi. "Encounters between pairs of unfamiliar dogs in a dog park." Biologia Futura 70, no. 2 (2019): 156-165.
Jackson, Patrick. "Situated activities in a dog park: Identity and conflict in human-animal space." Society & Animals 20, no. 3 (2012): 254-272.
Lee, Hyung-Sook, Mardelle Shepley, and Chang-Shan Huang. "Evaluation of off-leash dog parks in Texas and Florida: A study of use patterns, user satisfaction, and perception." Landscape and urban planning 92, no. 3-4 (2009): 314-324.
Richards, D. “Fighting for a dog park.” In I. E. Newkirk (Ed.), One can make a difference (2008): 187-190. Avon, MA: Adams Media.
Scott, John Paul, and John L. Fuller. Dog behavior. University of Chicago press, 1974.
Shyan, Melissa R., Kristina A. Fortune, and Christine King. "Bark Parks"-A Study on Interdog Aggression in a Limited-Control Environment." Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 6, no. 1 (2003): 25-32.
Walsh, Carolyn J., Melissa Howse, Charlotte Green, Lesley Butler, and Rita E. Anderson. "“Stop that!”: people interrupting dog behaviors in a dog park setting." Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research 1, no. 6 (2011): 77.
]]>Greyhounds are a fascinating breed of dog that belong to the sighthound family, meaning they have been selectively bred to hunt prey primarily by sight and the ability to outrun their prey. They are thought to be one of the oldest breeds of dog, dating back to the time of Ancient Egypt (Thompson, 2003; Coile, 2015). Their excellent running and hunting ability led to the formation of hare coursing competitions, in which dogs chase a live rabbit. This later evolved into the modern-day competitive sport of greyhound racing. This article will explore greyhound racing and life after the track for these special dogs.
Greyhound racing is a competitive racing sport in which dogs run around a circular or oval track, similar to horse racing. Dogs chase a lure (often a fluffy, artificial hare) powered by an electric motor. This entices dogs out of the starting boxes, around the track, and across the finish line (Thompson, 2003). Greyhounds can reach speeds of over 40 miles an hour thanks to their special build and unique rotary gallop (Granatosky, 2019; Bertram and Gutmann 2009; Usherwood and Wilson 2005). When racing, the greyhound is in the air 75% of the time (Granatosky, 2019). Similar to horse racing, in many parts of the world including the United States, gambling is a big part of the event. Greyhound racing remains a controversial sport and has been banned in some countries and more than 40 states in the United States (Markwell et al., 2017).
A healthy, well performing greyhound may race until 5 years of age (Elliott et al., 2010), however research shows that the average racing career is between 206 to 647 days on average (Palmer et al., 2020). Injured or poor performing dogs may be euthanized or retire early. Common injuries include muscle tears or sprains, lacerations, or bone fractures (Palmer et al., 2021).
Healthy, well-performing dogs may be retained for breeding, or put up for adoption. To improve the welfare of racing greyhounds there are many adoption programs which have partnered with greyhound racing organizations to help place retired dogs into family homes. Some well-known programs include Greyhounds as Pets in Australia and New Zealand and the Retired Greyhound Trust in the United Kingdom. There are over 200 greyhound adoption facilities operating in the United States. Typically, these programs perform behavioral assessments to help match dogs with the most appropriate homes. Areas tested may include acceptance to handling, whether they display resource guarding, response to new situations, and prey drive towards small dogs or cats.
Once greyhounds make the transition from the track into a home, they typically perform extremely well as pets. In a survey of new retired greyhound adoptees, 91.1% of owners were “very satisfied” with their dog’s role as a companion animal (Elliott et al., 2010). The following are traits generally associated with the greyhound breed:
Retired greyhounds are generally well socialized and well-bred and tend to have lower incidences of behavioral problems than the average shelter dog making them great candidates for household pets (Elliott et al., 2010). Of retired greyhounds that are returned to adoption organizations, the reasons noted were separation anxiety, noisiness, aggression towards children, and problems getting along with existing pets in the home (Elliott et al., 2010). It should be noted thought that the 1-month post-adoptive return rate was 3.3% which is lower than that reported by other shelter dog organizations (Elliott et al., 2010).
As with any breed of dog, greyhounds have some specific care requirements due to their physical and behavioral nature. Since their coats are short and they have very little body fat, they are likely to feel cold during the winter in cold climates (Rice, 2001). Greyhounds should be provided with a jacket or sweater to help regulate their body temperature when the weather gets chilly. Likewise, their short coats and bony features can cause them to feel uncomfortable on hard surfaces. These dogs will appreciate soft dog beds throughout the home to snuggle up in and to prevent sores from forming on their joints. Additionally, since greyhounds are sighthounds, they tend to have higher than average prey drives. This trait is what motivates them to chase the lure around the racetrack, but it could be misplaced towards small dogs, cats, children, or other small, fast moving creatures inside or outside the home. Therefore, greyhounds should always be secured well, either by a tall fence or on a leash to keep them from running off after prey and getting lost or potentially injured. If properly introduced, many greyhounds can successfully share homes with cats and other small animals. Finally, some retired greyhounds may be more likely to be fearful of new people (Duffy et al., 2008). These dogs may require some confidence building exercises and exposure to calm, friendly people to improve their quality of life and to prevent any aggression from developing.
While greyhounds are known for their running ability, they prefer to run for relatively short bursts. When they are not running, most are quite content lounging around. The breed has earned them the title of being “the world’s fastest couch potato” (Coile, 1998). They will still require frequent walks and play time, but they do not need to spend any more time running compared to the average dog. These traits make them well suited for pet life as they can adapt to an active lifestyle as well as a comfy life at home.
Due to how valuable greyhounds’ health is to the racing industry, their breeding has been well controlled and typically only healthy dogs are bred. As a result, greyhounds have a life expectancy of 12 years on average, which is much longer than comparable large breed dogs (Victor, 2010). In a study investigating the population structure and rates of inbreeding of common dog breeds, researchers found that most breeds are extremely inbred, with the exception of greyhounds (Calboli et al., 2008). As a result of this careful breeding, greyhounds have an extremely low prevalence of genetic diseases. Most notably, hip dysplasia which affects many large breed dogs is extremely rare amongst greyhounds (Lord et al., 2007).
In summary, adoption agencies that help place retired racing greyhounds into homes greatly improve the welfare of these dogs. People adopting retired greyhounds can expect a healthy, well-bred dog with favorable traits such as calm, quiet personalities with easy to care for coats. Just like any other dog breed, greyhounds will require training, exercise, and regular care. When provided with room to burn off energy and stretch their legs, along with plenty of warm soft areas to snuggle up in, retired racing greyhounds make excellent companions that have longer than average life expectancies.
Works Cited
Bertram, John EA, and Anne Gutmann. "Motions of the running horse and cheetah revisited: fundamental mechanics of the transverse and rotary gallop." Journal of the Royal Society Interface 6, no. 35 (2009): 549-559.
Boneham, S. W. "The dog training handbook: The complete guide to a well-behaved dog." (2008).
Calboli, Federico CF, Jeff Sampson, Neale Fretwell, and David J. Balding. "Population structure and inbreeding from pedigree analysis of purebred dogs." Genetics 179, no. 1 (2008): 593-601.
Coile, D. Caroline, and Caroline D. Coile. Encyclopedia of dog breeds. Barron's Educational Series, 1998.
Davis, C. “Essential dog: The ultimate owner’s guide to caring for your dog.” London, United Kingdom: Hamlyn (2004).
Duffy, Deborah L., Yuying Hsu, and James A. Serpell. "Breed differences in canine aggression." Applied Animal Behaviour Science 114, no. 3-4 (2008): 441-460.
Elliott, Rosemary, Jenny-Ann LML Toribio, and Denise Wigney. "The Greyhound Adoption Program (GAP) in Australia and New Zealand: A survey of owners’ experiences with their greyhounds one month after adoption." Applied Animal Behaviour Science 124, no. 3-4 (2010): 121-135.
Granatosky, Michael C. "Greyhound Racing." Encyclopedia of animal cognition and behavior (2019): 1-3.
Lord, Linda K., Jill E. Yaissle, Liliana Marin, and C. Guillermo Couto. "Results of a web‐based health survey of retired racing Greyhounds." Journal of veterinary internal medicine 21, no. 6 (2007): 1243-1250.
Markwell, Kevin, Tracey Firth, and Nerilee Hing. "Blood on the race track: An analysis of ethical concerns regarding animal-based gambling." Annals of Leisure Research 20, no. 5 (2017): 594-609.
Palmer, A. L., C. W. Rogers, K. J. Stafford, A. Gal, and C. F. Bolwell. "A retrospective descriptive analysis of race‐day injuries of greyhounds in New Zealand." Australian veterinary journal (2021).
Palmer, Anna L., Charlotte F. Bolwell, Kevin J. Stafford, Arnon Gal, and Chris W. Rogers. "Patterns of Racing and Career Duration of Racing Greyhounds in New Zealand." Animals 10, no. 5 (2020): 796.
Rice, Dan. Big dog breeds. Barron's, 2001.
Thompson, Laura. The dogs: a personal history of greyhound racing. Summersdale Publishers LTD-ROW, 2003.
Usherwood, James R., and Alan M. Wilson. "No force limit on greyhound sprint speed." Nature 438, no. 7069 (2005): 753-754.
Victor, Cindy. Greyhound: The Essential Guide for the Greyhound Lover. TFH Publications Inc, 2010.
]]>Almost all dogs will travel in a car in their lifetime. Trips to the vet, groomer, boarding facility, or fun outings such as a trip to the beach or a hike will most likely require traveling in a car. Dogs that go to doggie day care or to work with their parent may even go for car rides on a daily basis. We know the importance of wearing a seatbelt when traveling in a car to keep ourselves safe in case of an accident, but what about our dogs? This article will explore the different options that exist to keep you and your dog safe when traveling together in a car. Moreover, some tips on what option might be best for your situation will also be provided.
Do Dogs Need To Wear A Seatbelt In The Car?
Restraining a dog while traveling in a car is highly recommended. This not only protects our dogs, but also the humans traveling in the car with them. Firstly, dogs moving freely throughout a vehicle can be a distraction to the driver. They may jump in the driver’s seat, obstruct the driver’s view, get under the driver’s legs, or vocalize causing the driver to lose their focus on the road (Huisingh et al., 2016; Blunck et al., 2013; Mariti et al., 2012). Secondly, if an accident were to occur, dogs could become projectiles causing injury to other passengers in the car (Zeleny and Grusova, 2015). By restraining your dog in your car, they are more likely to remain secure and are much less likely to be ejected from the vehicle in the event of an accident (Zeleny and Grusova, 2015). In a survey of 100 veterinarians, 22 had reported witnessing a dog dying as a result of a road accident, while 18 reported treating injuries related to them being poorly restrained in the car (Anon, 2016). Despite this risk of injury or death, it is estimated that only 55% of people restrain their dogs during travel in the United States, compared to 67% of people in Australia and 72% of people in the United Kingdom (Hazel et al., 2019).
What Products Exist To Ensure Your Dog Is Safe In The Car?
Thankfully, there are a variety of products available on the market to fit a range of budgets, dog sizes, and car styles. Some of the most popular include:
In surveys of pet owners, it was found that cages or crates placed in the cargo area were the most commonly used method of restraint in the United States and the United Kingdom. In Australia it was found that a harness with a tether attached to a seat buckle was the most common form of restraint used (Hazel et al., 2019). While cost and ease of use factor into decisions regarding what method to use, the size of the dog can also impact what method is going to provide the best protection for your dog.
What Options Are Safest For Little Dogs?
Little dogs have many options to keep them restrained while traveling in the car. They can easily fit in booster seats and their crates or kennels often fit nicely in any size car. There are also many harnesses and tether systems that can fit their bodies. Unfortunately, when deciding on the safest option, there is little information related to how well the product will perform in an actual accident. There are no standard test protocols or monitoring standards for the production of dog car safety products (Zeleny and Grusova, 2015). This means that even products marketed to be safe, could function inadequately in an actual accident, sometimes with tragic consequences. In one case study of a dog that sustained serious injuries following a car crash, it was found that the safety harness being used to restrain the dog may have actually led to some of the dog’s injuries due to the force it exerted on the dog’s body (Zeleny and Grusova, 2015).
Thankfully, the Center for Pet Safety has been conducting safety tests on pet car safety products and has been sharing information with consumers on which products have been ‘crash test certified’, meaning they met performance standards in test crash scenarios. To date, they have certified 3 safety harnesses, 2 carriers, and 4 crates. The Rocketeer Pack by ZuGoPet is one such harness that is certified and designed for small dogs up to 25 pounds. The Sleepypod Clickit Sport and Terrain models both are certified harnesses that come in small sizes for small dogs. Other safe options for small dogs include the Away Pet Carrier, Gunner Kennel G1, and the Sleepypod carrier.
What Options Are Best For Large Dogs?
Large dogs may have less options available for restraining them. For instance, booster seats are going to be too small for them. Additionally, if you have a small car, a crate large enough to hold them may not fit. Cargo barriers are good options for keeping the dog away from the driver’s seat, however they are not the safest options. According to the Center for Pet Safety, there are two certified safety harnesses that work for large dogs (Sleepypod Clickit Sport – rated up to 90 pounds, and the Sleepypod Clickit Terrain – rated up to 110 pounds). Gunner Kennel and Lucky Kennel both make excellent crates for large dogs that have been safety approved. These travel crates should be used with anchor straps for optimum protection.
Where Is The Safest Place For Your Dog When Traveling Inside The Car?
Depending on the restraint system used, the safest locations in the car for your dog to travel are the backseat or the cargo area. If using a tether or booster seat, the dog should be placed in the back seat. If traveling in a carrier or crate, they should be placed either on the floor of the back seat or secured in the cargo area.
Dogs should never travel in your lap as they can be a distraction or may interfere with your ability to drive. Furthermore, airbags in the driver’s seat and passenger seat could cause injury or death to your dog in the event of an accident (NRMA Insurance, 2014).
How To Make Sure Your Dog Is Comfortable Traveling In The Car?
One major way you can help improve your dog’s comfort in the car is to make sure they are comfortable with their form of restraint before traveling in the car. Allow your dog to wear their safety harness in the house or on walks to get used to wearing it. Introduce your dog to travel crates or carriers in a safe and comfortable environment where they can explore them on their own and learn that they are comforting places to be. When traveling in the car, you may want to give your dog a bone or their favorite chew toy to keep them entertained. You can help them cope with stress from traveling by placing familiar scented blankets or dog beds in kennels or on the seats to encourage your dog to relax while traveling.
Are There Seatbelt Laws For Dogs?
The use of seatbelts for human occupants is mandated almost globally (World Health Organization, 2015). For dogs, legislation is much more limited. The Czech Republic is one country that does require pets to be restrained in the vehicle. In the United States, not all states have specific laws and regulations regarding restraint for dogs while traveling in the car. These regulations vary depending on the state and are generally difficult to enforce due to their vagueness (Hazel et al., 2019).
Conclusion
In summary, regardless of the legislation and where you live, dogs should be restrained in some manner to prevent injury to themselves and the human passengers traveling with them in the car. Safety restraint options vary, and there are pros and cons to each style of restraint. The Center for Pet Safety provides testing and resources on products that pass their safety standards. Overall, even though standards and regulations of car restraints are lacking, it is still better to use any form of restraint than using none. Finding an option that fits your budget, dog, car, and lifestyle will ensure your pet’s safety and allow them to live a long life full of fun adventures on the road.
Works Cited
“2015 Crate Study Results.” Center for Pet Safety. Accessed June 26, 2021.
Anon. “Surveys Highlight the Dangers of Unrestrained Pets in Cars.” Veterinary Record 179, no. 11 (2016): 271–71.
Blunck, Hallie, Cynthia Owsley, Paul A. MacLennan, and Gerald McGwin. "Driving with pets as a risk factor for motor vehicle collisions among older drivers." Accident Analysis & Prevention 58 (2013): 70-74.
Hazel, Susan J., Lori R. Kogan, V. Tamara Montrose, Michelle L. Hebart, and James A. Oxley. "Restraint of dogs in vehicles in the US, UK and Australia." Preventive veterinary medicine 170 (2019): 104714.
Huisingh, Carrie, Emily B. Levitan, Marguerite R. Irvin, Cynthia Owsley, and Gerald McGwin Jr. "Driving with pets and motor vehicle collision involvement among older drivers: A prospective population-based study." Accident Analysis & Prevention 88 (2016): 169-174.
Mariti, Chiara, Angelo Gazzano, Jane Lansdown Moore, Paolo Baragli, Laura Chelli, and Claudio Sighieri. "Perception of dogs’ stress by their owners." Journal of Veterinary Behavior 7, no. 4 (2012): 213-219.
“Paws and Secure Your Puppy – Dog car harness test.” NRMA Insurance, June 26, 2020.
“Seat-Belt - Data by Country.” World Health Organization. Global Health Observatory data repository, 2020.
Zeleny, M., and K. Grusova. "A car accident involving a restrained dog within the vehicle: a case report." Veterinarni Medicina 60, no. 7 (2015): 399-402.
]]>Walking your dog is a great bonding activity that has excellent health benefits for both you and your dog. Walks allow your dog to get mental and physical exercise as they sniff and explore their environment. Moreover, a walk outside can provide an opportunity for socialization with other people and other dogs that are out and about enjoying their day. Using a leash on a walk is an important component for walking your dog responsibly. Leashes help keep dogs out of trouble and running up to undesired animals, people, and places. But in some unfortunate cases, dogs develop fear or frustration while walking on a leash. Since this issue can be frustrating for some dog parents, we will explore how leash reactivity develops, how to prevent it, and how to manage it. This way you can get back to enjoying your favorite pastime with your dog without the issues.
Leash reactivity is when dogs develop heightened responses to stimuli (most often other people or dogs) while being walked on a leash. Responses can range from excitement to aggression, and may include lunging, barking, or growling. Aggression is a normal and natural behavior that dogs perform and may be rooted in fear, territoriality, competition, or it may be a learned behavior and may be inadvertently reinforced (Mertens, 2002). While it is natural in household settings, aggression can become challenging to manage, may present a danger to others, or it may interfere with the human-animal bond (Haug, 2008). Leash reactivity is one of the most reported problems in shelter dogs reducing their adoption chances or increasing their likelihood that they are returned (Shih et al., 2020; Marston et al., 2005; Pirner and McGlone, 2016). Additionally, the forward lunging that many leash reactive dogs perform can have negative health implications such as damaging soft tissues in the neck and trachea and can contribute to increased eye pressure (Carter et al., 2020; Pauli et al., 2006).
The following are some common behavioral signs of a leash reactive dog. If your dog performs any of the following behaviors at the sight of another dog, person, or other stimuli such as squirrels or passing cars, then they may be considered leash reactive.
Keep in mind that leash reactivity refers to the dog having a heightened response that may or may not include aggression. The strength of the response is directly related to the distance from the stimulus. For instance, the sight of a dog far off in the distance may only cause your dog to glance their direction but they remain calm and continue on their walk. A dog a block away may cause your dog to stop walking, stare, and freeze up. A close encounter with a dog, such as passing each other on the sidewalk may cause a strong reaction such as barking, lunging, and growling.
While factors such as genetics, negative early life experiences, and health issues can contribute to aggression (Horwitz, 2015), leash reactivity is almost always caused by dogs feeling frustrated or fearful and their response is their attempt to cope with the situation. Some dogs are raised being allowed to meet and greet every person or dog that walks by. Later in life when we try to ask these dogs to walk by without getting the chance to say “hi!”, they can get frustrated. This is further reinforced when we jerk the leash to encourage our dog to keep on walking. Over time, the dog’s frustration may manifest as lunging or barking to try to get to the other dog or person (Huag, 2008). Other times, dogs may be hesitant to meet other dogs or strangers while on a walk and may feel trapped or restricted by their leash and may try to distance themselves from others through the use of aggression. They may repeat this aggressive response as it has worked for them in the past. Unwanted encounters with others or fights with other dogs can further exacerbate leash reactivity problems (Horwitz, 2015).
Punishment can increase feelings of stress and anxiety in dogs and can lead to increased displays of problematic behaviors (Hiby et al., 2004). The use of leash corrections, shock collars, and physical or verbal reprimands should always be avoided when working with dogs that are leash reactive, since these actions can further increase fear and anxiety. Punishment can also lead to dogs not signaling their discomfort which can lead to sudden unexpected biting as the dog’s last-ditch effort to stop a situation (Horwitz, 2015).
There are steps that dog owners can take to help prevent their dog from becoming leash reactive. Research has shown that proper, early socialization up until 6 months of age can significantly reduce the changes of aggressive responses later in life (Appleby et al., 2002). By providing your young dog with positive, predictable meetings with other people and dogs they are more likely to grow up to be confident dogs. If you do introduce your dog to other dogs or people on walks while leashed, try to keep their emotional level low and controlled. You could have them sit before the greeting to help keep their excitability low and well mannered. If you notice your dog acting nervous or reluctant before a greeting, do not force them into an interaction. Some dogs are more extroverted or introverted than others, and some prefer the company of people over dogs and vice versa. Forcing your dog to interact when they do not want to could lead to your dog becoming leash reactive.
If you think your dog is leash reactive, there are proven methods that can help make your walks together enjoyable again. The methods most recommended by respected dog trainers and behaviorists involve changing your dog’s underlying emotional state and teaching them better coping mechanisms for when they encounter overwhelming stimuli. Classical counter conditioning is a useful tool that can help your dog associate scary stimuli with something positive, such as cookies or praise, causing them to look forward to those positive interactions at the sight of the stimulus instead of reacting negatively (Horwitz, 2005). One game that can be played with your dog to change their emotional state and give them alternative coping mechanisms is discussed on Karen Pryor’s website and is called the “engage-disengage game” (Tong, 2014). This game consists of two major levels which are broken down into steps here:
When training with a leash reactive dog, always ensure that you can humanely retain control of them at all times. Harnesses or head collars such as a gentle leader work great for this while preventing injury to your dog’s sensitive throat. Consider using a muzzle if you are concerned with your dog accidentally biting someone. If properly fitted, muzzles can be a great humane safety tool that can add peace of mind to your training practice!
Dogs that are leash reactive may have heightened reactions to other dogs or people on walks due to feelings of fear and frustration. The leash adds additional stress by making the dog feel trapped. In order to successfully reduce leash reactivity, you’ll need to increase the dog’s confidence. Never force them into unwanted social interactions and gradually teach them better ways to respond.
Works Cited
Appleby, D. L., John WS Bradshaw, and Rachel A. Casey. "Relationship between aggressive and avoidance behaviour by dogs and their experience in the first six months of life." Veterinary Record 150, no. 14 (2002): 434-438.
Bain, Melissa. "Aggression toward unfamiliar people and animals." In BSAVA manual of canine and feline behavioural medicine, pp. 211-222. BSAVA Library, 2009.
Carter, Anne, Donal McNally, and Amanda Roshier. "Canine collars: an investigation of collar type and the forces applied to a simulated neck model." Veterinary Record (2020).
Haug, Lore I. "Canine aggression toward unfamiliar people and dogs." Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 38, no. 5 (2008): 1023-1041.
Hiby, E. F., N. J. Rooney, and J. W. S. Bradshaw. "Dog training methods: their use, effectiveness and interaction with behaviour and welfare." ANIMAL WELFARE-POTTERS BAR THEN WHEATHAMPSTEAD- 13, no. 1 (2004): 63-70.
Horwitz, D. F. "Classical Counter-Conditioning as a Treatment Modality for Dogs (Canis familiaris) Showing Aggression Toward Other Dogs on Walks." Current issues and research in veterinary behavioral medicine (2005): 207-210.
Horwitz, Debra F., and Veterinary Behavior Consultations. "How to help dogs that are aggressive during leash walking.” Today’s Veterinary Practice (2015).
Marston, Linda C., Pauleen C. Bennett, and Grahame J. Coleman. "Adopting shelter dogs: owner experiences of the first month post-adoption." Anthrozoös 18, no. 4 (2005): 358-378.
Mertens, P. A. "BSAVA Manual of canine and feline behavioural medicine." In Canine Aggression, pp. 195-215. BSAVA, Gloucester, 2002.
Pauli, Amy M., Ellison Bentley, Kathryn A. Diehl, and Paul E. Miller. "Effects of the application of neck pressure by a collar or harness on intraocular pressure in dogs." Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association 42, no. 3 (2006): 207-211.
Pirner, Glenna, and John McGlone. "Impact of androstenone on leash pulling and jumping up in dogs." Animals 6, no. 5 (2016): 34.
Shih, H. Y., M. B. A. Paterson, F. Georgiou, and C. J. C. Phillips. "Do Canine Behavioural Assessments and Characteristics Predict the Human-Dog Interaction When Walking on a Leash in a Shelter Setting? Animals 2021, 11, 26." (2020).
Tong, A. (2014, July 1). Reducing Leash Reactivity: The Engage-Disengage Game. Reducing Leash Reactivity: The Engage-Disengage Game | Karen Pryor Clicker Training.
]]>The term “prey drive” is often thrown around when describing dog breeds or temperaments. This term can sometimes be confused with aggression since they share similar behavioral traits. This article will explain what differentiates prey drive from aggression, how prey drive can be beneficial, and advice on how to safely manage a dog with a strong prey drive.
In its simplest terms, prey drive is the desire to hunt. Modern day dogs descended from ancestors that would have had to hunt for their food. Our dogs retain, at various levels, this innate desire to pursue prey. The predator sequence that dogs and their ancestors follow when hunting can be simplified as follows (MacNultry, 2002):
Within our homes, the predator sequence may be directed towards toys or other objects in place of prey animals. Dogs with strong prey drives may be more willing to engage in competitive games such as tug of war or may be more excited by a game of fetch as these activities help fulfill their desire to hunt prey (Wilsson and Sundgren, 1997; Sanders, 2006). These dogs often have more energy and are more excitable, and greatly enjoy chasing or searching for their toys (Jones et al., 2004; Jones, 2008).
When dogs attempt to go after prey, it often looks a lot like aggression. They may have erect ears, a rigid tail, puffed up chest/body, or stiff body language. However, the underlying motivation behind prey drive behaviors and aggressive behaviors are quite different. Prey drive is instinctive, whereas aggression is emotionally driven. When dogs display behaviors related to the predatory sequence, they are motivated to get closer to their target. Aggressive dogs on the other hand, will display behaviors in hopes of distancing themselves from a perceived threat. Dogs that have a strong prey drive are not any more or less likely to be aggressive than dogs with low prey drives. Instead, aggression is most likely to occur in fearful dogs that lack confidence (Sanders, 2006).
While dogs with strong prey drives are not necessarily going to be aggressive towards people or other dogs, their high energy levels and strong desire to chase after small animals can sometimes cause harm. A high prey drive can spell trouble to small animals that the dog recognizes as prey such as squirrels, rabbits, and birds. If the dog gets a hold of them, then they risk being killed. This strong desire to chase and catch small animals can cause a number of problems. For one, the animals that are prey targets can be dangerous to your dog such as a bee or a snake. Secondly, your dog’s excitement can cause them to end up running far away from home and getting lost or run out into traffic during their pursuit. A dog’s prey drive is often triggered by small, erratic moving objects. Unfortunately, this sometimes can mean that other family pets, such as cats or hamsters can end up becoming your dog’s target. Other times, fast moving children can also trigger a dog’s prey drive, causing them to nip at the child. When walking a dog with a strong prey drive, one must be aware of their surroundings and be ready to brace themselves if the dog decides to lunge after something. This can be especially dangerous for the elderly, or when walking in icy conditions.
Dogs have been selectively bred for both their looks and behavior. By selecting dogs to perform specific tasks, such as hunting or herding, we have removed certain steps in the predatory sequence. For example, herding dogs have been bred to orient, eye, stalk, and sometimes chase, but not to bite. Retrievers have been bred to capture prey without progressing to the kill-bite or dissection phase. Scent hounds have been bred to track and hold prey, without chasing them away or attacking them. Other dogs have been bred to be good home companions without a strong predatory drive. Overall, dogs with the strongest prey drives are those that have been bred to help us hunt or move livestock (Jones et al., 2004; Parker et al., 2017). Examples include herding dogs such as Australian Shepherds and Border Collies, terriers such as the Airedale and Bull Terrier, hounds such as Beagles and Greyhounds, and sporting dogs such as retrievers, spaniels, and pointers. A couple other dog breeds known for their strong prey drives are Huskies and Boxers, although these dogs do not fit the typical working dog pattern.
Since breeds with high prey drives are typically more active and motivated to seek, chase, and guard objects, they may require different management techniques to keep them happy and out of trouble in your home. Dogs that have a tendency to chase after small animals or cars should be kept on a leash at all times when out on walks. Consider using a harness instead of a neck collar for dogs that might lunge to give you better control and to protect your dog’s throat. At home, make sure your home and yard are secure to prevent your dog from escaping and running away. Wearing identification tags and/or having your dog microchipped are always good ideas, but it is especially important for dogs that are at high risk of running off after something exciting. Dogs with strong prey drives excel when given jobs to do such as agility or sporting and when they are given plenty of opportunities for exercise and mental stimulation. Games such as chase and fetch are especially great. Toys called “flirt poles” are also a wonderful option for allowing your dog to express their prey drive in a safe manner. Flirt poles are essentially extra-large cat wands made specifically for dogs. Training can also come in handy when working with an excitable dog. Teaching them the command “leave it” to ignore enticing stimuli and having good recall ability are incredibly useful. These can be further reinforced by playing games that improve your dog’s impulse control. This can involve learning what triggers your dog, redirecting their behavior, and rewarding them for focusing on you or a toy instead of the “prey”. Make sure you are using high value rewards when doing this work as they have to compete with the dog’s trigger.
In addition to providing safe outlets for your dog and improving their training, there are some precautions that should be implemented if you have other small pets at home or young children. Always supervise dogs around children or other animals. Baby gates can be useful to give children protected areas to play. To provide protection for a cat, make sure they have areas to escape to in case they get chased such as shelves, tall furniture, or tall cat trees.
Dogs with strong prey drives may require some extra precautions, but this temperament can be incredibly rewarding. Strong prey drives are linked with personality traits of courage, hardness, and defensiveness (Wilsson and Sundgren, 1997). They have also been shown to be associated with competitiveness, liveliness, cooperativeness, and curiosity (Wilsson and Sinn, 2012). These traits make training them a breeze as they are highly motivated to perform tasks. It also means they make great working dogs and are often used by the military and police to aid in search and rescue efforts, and for detecting narcotics, bombs, rot or mold (Wilsson and Sundgren, 1997; Jones et al., 2004). They also make great hunting companions and are excellent for working with livestock.
In summary, a prey drive is the instinctual desire that dogs experience (some more than others) to seek, stalk, chase, and attack prey animals. This drive can also be directed towards other fast-moving objects such as balls, cars, cats, and children. While strong prey drives can sometimes get dogs into trouble, they are linked with a number of desirable traits that make these dogs incredibly trainable and willing to work. With proper exercise, mental stimulation, training, and appropriate outlets (e.g., toys) high prey drive dogs can make fantastic companions and cherished members of your family.
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
Works Cited
Jones, Amanda Claire. "Development and validation of a dog personality questionnaire." (2008).
Jones, Katherine E., Karen Dashfield, Amanda B. Downend, and Cynthia M. Otto. "Search-and-rescue dogs: an overview for veterinarians." Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 225, no. 6 (2004): 854-860.
MacNulty, D. R. (2002). The predatory sequence and the influence of injury risk on hunting behavior in the wolf (Doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota).
Parker, H. G., Dreger, D. L., Rimbault, M., Davis, B. W., Mullen, A. B., Carpintero-Ramirez, G., & Ostrander, E. A. (2017). Genomic analyses reveal the influence of geographic origin, migration, and hybridization on modern dog breed development. Cell reports, 19(4), 697-708.
Sanders, Clinton R. "“The Dog You Deserve” Ambivalence in the K-9 Officer/Patrol Dog Relationship." Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 35, no. 2 (2006): 148-172.
Wilsson, Erik, and David L. Sinn. "Are there differences between behavioral measurement methods? A comparison of the predictive validity of two ratings methods in a working dog program." Applied Animal Behaviour Science 141, no. 3-4 (2012): 158-172.
Wilsson, Erik, and Per-Erik Sundgren. "The use of a behaviour test for the selection of dogs for service and breeding, I: Method of testing and evaluating test results in the adult dog, demands on different kinds of service dogs, sex and breed differences." Applied Animal Behaviour Science 53, no. 4 (1997): 279-295.
]]>Before you head to the lake or go out for a walk, slipping on a hat or rubbing on the sunscreen probably comes second nature. But have you ever thought about doing the same for your dog? Sunburns are a very real thing for our canine companions. As it turns out, their fur has no SPF rating.
Dogs can absolutely get sunburned. Sunburn can occur on any part of their body, but it is more common on parts that are more lightly haired, such as the nose, ears, and belly. It’s also important to note that it’s uncommon for foot pads to get sunburned, but they can get badly burned from walking on hot concrete or asphalt.
Dogs can start to show signs of a sunburn within an hour of sun exposure. Signs are very similar to what they are in humans, but they might not be as noticeable. So, it’s important to pay close attention to your dog when they’re in the sun in order to catch the first possible signs of a sunburn occurring. Some of the signs are:
If you notice any of the above signs, it’s important to get your dog out of the sun as soon as possible. This will help keep the sunburn from getting worse and to start to get your dog some relief.
Any dog with exposure to the sun is at risk of getting a sunburn. However, just like humans, there are some dogs that carry a higher risk of getting burned than others. Dogs with higher risk are:
Hair, especially dark hair, does provide some protection from the sun. It is able to absorb or deflect the sun’s harmful rays. Light-colored hair doesn’t have the blocking capability that dark or thick hair has, making these dogs more susceptible to sunburn.
All dogs, regardless of hair length and color, can easily get sunburned on the parts of their body with little to no hair. Major areas of concern include:
If your pup enjoys a cooling summer cut, pay special attention to provide sun protection, since trimming hair can make a dog more attractive to a sunburn.
Dogs experience sunburn just like people do. They’re painful, hot, and uncomfortable for several days depending on the severity. They may even run a slight fever. But when it’s all over, there is still the risk of the sunburn turning into skin cancer.
Exposure to the sun and repetitive sunburns can lead to skin cancer in dogs. There are many different forms of skin cancer that plague our furry friends, with squamous cell carcinoma being the most common due to sun exposure. This type of cancer is aggressive and quick to spread to local lymph nodes. Surgical removal of the tumor followed by chemotherapy or radiation is often advised. An issue with this type of cancer is that it often occurs on those hard to remove areas, such as the nose or lips, making a complete surgical removal very difficult. This makes prevention all the more important.
Melanoma, hemangioma, and hemangiosarcomas are other skin cancers that can be related to sun exposure.
Nobody wants to put their pup through the pain and discomfort of a sunburn, let alone the possibility of contributing to their risk of getting skin cancer. So when it comes to sunburns in dogs, prevention is key. In order to provide protection from the sun for your pup, follow these tips:
If at all possible, keep your pup indoors or in a shaded area during peak sun hours. In most areas that means from 10 am to 4 pm. This is when the sun is at its highest and hottest. Try to do your exercising early in the morning or later in the evening. Always provide your outdoor dog with a constant source of shade.
For light-colored or short-haired dogs, cover them up with a t-shirt or dog body suit to protect them from the sun. This type of clothing can protect your dog from the sun without causing them to overheat. There are also doggie hats and goggles to protect their head, ears, and eyes from those harmful rays.
Apply sunscreen to your dog’s vulnerable parts when they go out into the sun. For darker or thicker-coated dogs, coating the nose, ears and belly should be enough. However, for lighter-colored dogs, consider slathering sunscreen on their entire body.
The safest sunscreen to use on your dog is one that is actually formulated for canines. Dog sunscreen is free from toxic ingredients that can harm your pet if ingested, because, let’s face it, your dog is bound to eat at least some of it.
If dog sunscreen isn’t available, your next best option is sunscreen formulated for babies or kids. These products tend to be a little gentler than adult sunscreen. Check the ingredients list and avoid zinc oxide. If a large enough quantity of zinc oxide is ingested, it can lead to toxicity. A safer, yet just as effective alternative active ingredient is titanium dioxide.
Rub the sunscreen on your dog and then watch them for 5-10 minutes while it soaks in. This will help keep them from immediately licking it off. Reapply sunscreen to your dog often, every 80 to 90 minutes, especially if they’re swimming.
Even with the best prevention, sunburns can still happen to your dog. If your pup happens to get a little too sun soaked, treat them the same way you would a human.
Apply cool compresses to the area to help cool them down and make them more comfortable. Aloe vera ointments can also provide some cooling and moisturizing relief. In some cases, an anti-inflammatory ointment, such as cortisone may help to reduce some of the swelling and redness. However, only use this under the guidance of a veterinarian.
If your pup is severely sunburned, running a fever, or is showing any other abnormal signs, see your veterinarian immediately. Sunburns can often be accompanied by heat stroke, a very serious condition that can result in permanent damage and even death. Also, severe sunburns can lead to secondary bacterial or fungal skin infections if not treated properly.
We all like to get out and enjoy some fun in the sun, especially our canine companions. Providing them with proper sun protection such as sunscreen and shade can help prevent the discomforts of sunburns and even skin cancer. So when you put on sunscreen to enjoy a sunny day outside, make sure you’re doing the same for your dog.
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
]]>Just imagine that you’re in the middle of a heated game of tug of war with your new puppy and all of a sudden you spot a tiny, pearly white speck lodged in the tug toy. Did you just pull out one of your puppy’s teeth?! Before you call your vet in a panic, it’s important to know that puppies naturally lose their baby teeth, just like humans. To answer more of your dog’s teething questions, read on.
Dogs, just like humans, grow two sets of teeth in their lifetime. The deciduous, or baby teeth, will be lost and replaced by adult teeth. If an adult tooth is lost, it won’t be replaced naturally.
Puppies are born toothless, a small blessing for all the momma dogs out there. At around 2 to 3 weeks of age, they start to get some of their baby teeth. This process is usually completed by 6 to 10 weeks. The incisors, or the tiny teeth in front, and the canine teeth come out first, followed by the premolars. Puppies don’t have deciduous molars. In total, a young puppy will have 28 teeth.
Shortly after, between 2 and 4 months old, puppies will start to lose their baby teeth to make way for permanent adult teeth. Again, the incisors go first, followed by the premolars at around 4 to 6 months of age and the molars come out around 4 to 7 months. The adult canines are last to come out at between 5 to 6 months of age.
Of course, there is always variation between both breeds and individuals. However, by 7 to 8 months old, nearly every puppy should have their full set of 42 adult teeth.
Teething in puppies is nearly a continuous process from the time a puppy is 2 weeks old until they’re close to 8 months. So, it may be hard to tell when your pup is actively teething versus what’s considered their normal behavior. However, teething puppies will often show off a few unique traits.
This one may be a little hard to tell since most puppies already chew on things 24/7. But a teething puppy may try chewing on objects of different textures to find relieve for their sore gums. It’s not uncommon for a pup to chew on hard objects like furniture or rocks, then switch to something soft like the carpet, and then followed by a small taste of your arm or toes when they’re teething.
Most of the time your puppy is going to harmlessly swallow their baby teeth and you’ll never know the difference. However, you may find their teeny, tiny baby teeth in places like their food or water bowl or in an item that they’ve been aggressively chewing on. You may also notice gaps in your puppy’s smile where baby teeth once were. This is especially true when incisors or canine teeth are lost.
When a baby tooth falls out, it may be accompanied by a little bit of blood. This is simply because teeth are connected to a blood supply and breaking that bond will often result in some very minor bleeding. But don’t expect your teething puppy to look like they just got hit with a baseball in the mouth since it is more likely to not notice bleeding during teething at all. The blood you’re sure to see is a little discoloration of their water or a little staining on a chew toy.
Forget about the usually welcome odor of puppy breath. Instead, teething can bring about extra bacteria in the mouth that can lead to a smelly situation when they get up close and personal. This odor usually goes away once the adult teeth come out and the bacteria no longer have a cozy pocket to stay in.
When a tooth is about to erupt through the surface of the gum, it can be quite painful and inflamed. The gums may appear red, bloody, and swollen. Your puppy may cry when trying to eat hard kibble or chew on a firm toy. The pain and discomfort will usually subside once the tooth breaks the surface.
Most of the time your puppy will work to relieve their teething discomfort on their own. That being said, there are still some things that you can do to help them work through it a little more easily.
Always make sure to provide them with safe and durable chew toys. These toys should be firm enough that they won’t instantly be bitten into pieces. Yet they need to be pliable enough to be bent in your hand. If a toy is too hard, it may harm your puppy or if it’s too brittle it will easily break into swallowable pieces. If it’s too soft, it won’t provide the relief that it intended.
You should also offer chew toys with a variety of shapes and textures. Let your puppy choose which toy works best for them at the moment that they need it. Giving your puppy lots of good chew toys will not only help them work through their teething woes, it can also keep them from chewing on things that you don’t want them to, like you and your furniture.
If you notice a loose tooth in your puppy’s mouth, you’re better off letting the tooth fall out naturally. Pulling a baby tooth can result in breaking the roots off, causing bigger problems down the road.
Keep tabs on your pup when you know they’re teething. While it’s not uncommon for their appetite to go down a little bit, it shouldn’t drop dramatically or for more than a couple of days. They also shouldn’t run a noticeable fever or bleed more than a drop or two. If your puppy seems to be acting out of the ordinary than what is expected with normal teething, see your veterinarian.
More often than not, your puppy is going to go through their teething process without you even noticing. However, there are times when complications arise and it’s important for you to be able to recognize them.
Retained or persistent baby teeth are actually fairly common, especially in small breeds. A retained baby tooth occurs when the adult tooth comes out beside the baby tooth and fails to push it out. The canine teeth are the most likely offenders. What you end up with is two teeth side by side and often overlapping. This can lead to problems with chewing, crooked teeth, and dental disease. Retained baby teeth should be removed by your veterinarian.
Baby teeth can get broken from chewing on hard objects or from dog parents trying to pull them out. The trouble is baby teeth have long roots that anchor them in the jaw. If a tooth is broken off, the roots may remain in the jaw and can cause pain and infection.
As baby teeth make way for adult teeth, a pup’s mouth can become overcrowded. When teeth are all squished together, it’s hard to get them clean all the way around. This leads to tartar and plaque buildup, inflamed gums, and bad breath.
Adult dogs will normally have 42 permanent teeth. These are made up of 12 incisors, 4 canines, 16 premolars and 10 molars divided between the upper and lower jaws. The lower jaw will have an extra molar on each side compared to the upper jaw.
Adult dogs may lose teeth due to injuries or dental disease. Keeping your pup’s teeth healthy with regular brushings, dental exams, and professional cleanings is the best way to make sure they keep their adult teeth for as long as possible.
Teething in puppies is a normal process that starts with the eruption of their baby teeth at around 2 weeks of age and is completed with a full set of adult teeth between 6 and 8 months of age. Most of the time puppies will go through teething with nothing more than some extra chewing. You can help them through this phase of their life by providing high quality flexible chew toys. Sometimes issues related to teething can also erupt. If you have any questions about your puppy’s teething process, consult your veterinarian.
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
]]>Dogs have lived beside humans for thousands of years. Only in the past century have commercial dog foods been available for purchase. As people become more conscious of feeding themselves wholesome diets, they have begun to question whether the highly processed dog food that is available on store shelves are really the best for the health and longevity of their dogs, or whether they should be feeding a diet that is more similar to what dogs would have eaten in the past.
Before dog food was available in packaged form, people simply fed their dogs their leftovers and table scraps (Parr and Remillard, 2014). Dogs in homes of different social classes were therefore eating vastly different food. Dogs in working class families may have subsided on a diet of leftover cabbage, potatoes, and bread and may have had to forage for the remainder of their meal. On the other hand, dogs kept by wealthy landowners may have gotten to eat chef prepared stews consisting of meat, grains, and vegetables. In one of the earliest books on hunting that was originally published in the early 1400’s, the diet of hunting dogs was discussed. It seems these dogs were mostly fed bread but were rewarded with fresh meat whenever they made a kill (Edward of Norwich, 2005). It is also believed that horse meat (from dead carriage horses) was commonly fed to dogs of families that could afford it (Wilson and Edwards, 1993).
The inspiration for the first commercial dog food came from discarded hardtack biscuits that were thrown away by sailors. An entrepreneur named James Spratt created the first commercial dog food in the 1870s after watching street dogs eat these thrown away biscuits. Thanks to aggressive advertising, Spratt’s dog food quickly began to replace table scraps in the American dog’s diet (Case et al., 2011). In 1922, a new pet food option sold under the name of Ken-L Ration gained popularity in the United States. This time the food was sold in a can and consisted mainly of horse meat (Case et al., 2011). Dry dog food kibble did not become commercially available until the 1960s and 1970s when extrusion technology allowed for the creation of a variety of kibble options.
It may not be surprising that dog food trends follow human food trends. As we move to cut out highly processed foods from our diet and reach for fresh produce, we are looking to do the same for our four-legged family members (APPA, 2020). This has led to a rapid increase in the number of “all-natural” dog options as well as those that are grain-free, gluten-free, GMO-free, or organic. Trends toward supporting sustainable agricultural practices and the welfare of those animals that become meat products have led to even more options for consumers in the grocery store aisles, pet stores, and online marketplaces. In the past, pet food trends used to follow human food trends by about three to five years, but in many cases the pet food industry is now leading the human food industry (Cottenie and Snaet, 2018).
There are quite a few regulating entities that exist to ensure the food we feed our pets is safe and nutritious. The following are a list of some of these groups and a brief description of how they protect the quality of dog food (Case et al., 2011).
Advancements in technology and knowledge of dogs’ dietary needs have led to a wealth of dog food options on the market. The following are some of the most popular food types available for purchase as well as their pros and cons.
It is safe to say that overall, the quality of dog food has increased since its inception. Our understanding of dog nutrition has advanced considerably and modern-day dog food is dramatically different than the original dog biscuits invented over 100 years ago. Dog foods today have set standards for vitamin, mineral, and protein content to ensure our dogs are eating a balanced diet. Our preservation techniques have also come along way which ensure dog food remains safe, full of nutrients, and shelf stable for long periods of time. While dog food recalls occur on occasion, the risk of food contamination can be greatly reduced through careful selection of ingredients, good quality control, and good production practices (Fernandes et al., 2018). Trends towards minimally processed dog foods with high quality ingredients have increased the supply and accessibility of highly nutritious and easy to feed options.
The current trend seems to be that dog parents are looking to get back to feeding their dogs fresh, unprocessed meats, fruits, and vegetables. While this is similar to how dogs have been fed for thousands of years, we now have the knowledge and technology to ensure diets are appropriately formulated and convenient to feed. Regulatory agencies allow for transparency of ingredients and help ensure the food is safe and properly balanced. There are a variety of commercial dog food options out there to fit different lifestyles and financial situations. Feel free to mix food styles as well, such as topping dry kibble with something more appealing to your dog. Feeding a dog food that is nutritious and appropriate for your individual dog can help keep them healthy and by your side for many years to come!
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
Works Cited
American Pet Products Association. "2019–2020 APPA national pet owners survey." Greenwich, CT: American Pet Products Association (2020).
Case, L. P., L. Daristotle, M. G. Hayek, and M. F. Raasch. "Chapter 14-History and Regulation of Pet Foods Canine and Feline Nutrition (pp. 121-129)." Saint Louis: Mosby (2011).
Cottenie, B., and M. Snaet. "Consumer trends driving pet food development globally." Agro Food Industry Hi-Tech 29, no. 6 (2018): 45-47.
Dillitzer, Natalie, Nicola Becker, and Ellen Kienzle. "Intake of minerals, trace elements and vitamins in bone and raw food rations in adult dogs." British Journal of Nutrition 106, no. S1 (2011): S53-S56.
Edward of Norwich, H. G. The master of game. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005.
Fernandes, Elisabete A. De Nadai, Camila Elias, Márcio Arruda Bacchi, and Peter Bode. "Trace element measurement for assessment of dog food safety." Environmental Science and Pollution Research 25, no. 3 (2018): 2045-2050.
Freeman, L. M., Chandler, M. L., Hamper, B. A., & Weeth, L. P. (2013). Current knowledge about the risks and benefits of raw meat–based diets for dogs and cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 243(11), 1549-1558.
Freeman, Lisa M., and Kathryn E. Michel. "Evaluation of raw food diets for dogs." Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 218, no. 5 (2001): 705-709.
Gazzotti, T., G. Biagi, G. Pagliuca, C. Pinna, M. Scardilli, M. Grandi, and G. Zaghini. "Occurrence of mycotoxins in extruded commercial dog food." Animal Feed Science and Technology 202 (2015): 81-89.
Martisen, N., and J. Casper. "Allergies and elemental minerals: a new understanding." Dogs Naturally 4 (2013): 56-59.
National Research Council. Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies Press, 2006.
Parr, Jacqueline M., and Rebecca L. Remillard. "Handling alternative dietary requests from pet owners." Veterinary Clinics: Small Animal Practice 44, no. 4 (2014): 667-688.
Wilson, Bob, and Peter Edwards. "Butchery of horse and dog at Witney Palace, Oxfordshire, and the knackering and feeding of meat to hounds during the post-medieval period." Post-Medieval Archaeology 27, no. 1 (1993): 43-56.
]]>CBD for medicinal purposes has been rapidly growing in popularity as hemp derived products gain legal status and societal acceptance. Many people experience health benefits using CBD themselves and are naturally curious if their pets may benefit too. Unfortunately, little is understood scientifically about CBD’s effectiveness and safety due to it being recently declassified as a Schedule 1 substance (which made it illegal to research). This article will explore what we know about CBD use in dogs along with some guidance on how to use it for your own pets.
CBD is short for cannabidiol, a substance derived from the hemp plant. This plant is a cousin of marijuana and does not contain the psychoactive compound called THC that gets you high. Hemp is one of the earliest cultivated crops and was traditionally grown for fiber. However, throughout its history, hemp has been used to treat many medical conditions (Schluttenhofer and Yuan, 2017). Up until recently, regulations have prohibited research on CBD. But as the substance gains legality, research into its therapeutic uses has been growing. Most notably, CBD has shown to be incredibly effective at reducing seizures in patients with epilepsy. Products containing CBD are becoming readily available to the public and are advertised to treat anything from anxiety to chronic pain. As public acceptance and curiosity towards CBD grows, pet product manufacturers have been crafting CBD products specifically for dogs.
In the United States, CBD is federally recognized as a supplement, therefore it is not regulated by the FDA. Furthermore, organizations that regulate supplements for humans may not apply to products developed for pets (Hartsel el al., 2019). This means that the public must trust what is presented on the labels of these products which may not always be accurate. Some product manufacturers overcome this by having their product tested by a third-party company and have these results available to consumers. Generally, CBD is regarded as safe, especially if used in small doses. Some veterinarians are hesitant to recommend CBD for clients due to the lack of knowledge available and because there are typically better understood alternatives available. If you choose to provide CBD to your dog, make sure you consult your veterinarian first to make sure it is not going to have an adverse interaction with any of their other medications. Your veterinarian will also help determine the best dosage for your particular dog.
The cannabidiol compound used in human CBD products is the same as what is used in dog CDB products. What might be different between the two are the form of the product (e.g. cookie versus oil), the flavor additives, the concentration, or which carrier oil is used. CBD can be sold in the form of edibles, tablets or capsules, oils or extracts, topical creams, or it may be packaged for smoking. Dog CBD products are most often in pill or biscuit form (Kogan et al., 2018). There are many oils that can be used as carrier oils in CBD products. Most are medium chain triglycerides, such as coconut oil, or they might use grape seed oil or hemp seed oil. Other additives might include flavor components such as essential oils or flavors that dogs may find appealing, such as cod liver oil. Additionally, human grade CBD products may be highly concentrated, therefore dosing should be carefully considered, especially if given to small dogs. When giving any CBD product to your dog, make sure you check all of the ingredients to make sure they are safe for your dog to consume. If you are unsure about any ingredient or proper dosing, check with your veterinarian.
Reports of CBD’s therapeutic benefits are abundant. Clinical trials conducted on humans have explored CBD’s effectiveness at treating a wide variety of ailments including pain, nausea, vomiting, inflammation, cancer, asthma, glaucoma, spinal cord injuries, appetite loss, and diseases such as Parkinson’s, multiple sclerosis, and Alzheimer’s (Grotenhermen and Müller-Vahl, 2012; Landa et al., 2016; Lynch and Ware, 2015).
In dogs, CBD is most commonly used for pain relief (Kogan et al., 2016), reducing inflammation, and for anxiety relief (Kogan et al., 2018). Scientific studies on the effectiveness of CBD for dogs are scarce, however there have been clinical trials showing positive results in pain reduction and reducing seizures (McGrath et al., 2019). When veterinarians were surveyed about CBD success, they noted that clients had the most success with CBD when treating chronic and acute pain, anxiety, and seizure frequency and severity (Kogan et al., 2019). Clients were most likely to approach their veterinarians about CBD for pain management, anxiety, seizures, and for helping with storm or firework phobias (Kogan et al., 2019). While scientific results are lacking, these anecdotal results are promising and warrant further study of CBD as a therapeutic tool.
Since scientific evidence surrounding CBD use is lacking, we are currently missing critical research on effective therapeutic does of CBD. Recommendations from manufactures are typically around 0.2 mg of CBD per pound of body weight. Most recommend starting with a low dose and slowly increasing it over time until you find the dose that gives the best results for your individual dog. Depending on the ailment, CBD can be given once or twice a day, or even once every 8 hours such as for the treatment of inflammation and pain. If the purpose is to calm a dog during a stressful event such as a storm or fireworks, CBD should be given at least 30 minutes prior to the event for optimal results. In the few studies that examined CBD’s effectiveness in dogs, they utilized doses that were often much higher (often by 4-5 times) than the manufacturer’s recommendations. One clinical study found that when dogs with arthritis were given 2 mg per kg of CBD twice a day they experienced greater comfort and increased activity (Gamble et al., 2018). In another study, it was shown that dogs benefited from CBD at doses of around 1-2 mg per kg of body weight when given every 12 hours (Kogan et al., 2020).
When determining what dose is best for your dog, it is important to consider the form of the CBD product. CBD is the most bioavailable when inhaled as it bypasses metabolism by the liver. When given orally, the bioavailability is reduced. But in spite of this, good responses have been observed. Liquid CBD products are more bioavailable than capsules or cookies, which may have reduced effectiveness due to the manufacturing process (Bartner et al., 2018).
While adverse reactions are rare, there are some behavioral signs to watch out for that could indicate your dog is having an adverse reaction to the product or that their dosing may be too strong. First, the purity of CBD products may vary, and some might contain trace amounts of THC, which dogs are extremely sensitive to.
Signs of THC poising in dogs include (Fitzgerald et al., 2013):
Side effects from CBD itself are rare and typically mild. The most commonly reported side effects from CBD include (Kogan et al., 2019; McGrath et al., 2018):
Take your dog to the vet immediately if you suspect they are experiencing THC poisoning. If your dog experiences side effects from a CBD product, you might need to reduce the dose or frequency that you are giving the product, or question whether CBD is the right treatment option for your particular dog.
In summary, there is currently a critical lack of regulation of CBD products and a lack of knowledge about effective CBD doses for treatment of various ailments. Due to this lack of information, many veterinarians are hesitant to recommend CBD for treatment, especially when there are better understood alternatives. With that being said, the scientific studies that have been conducted on CBD appears to show effectiveness at easing pain, reducing seizures, and easing anxiety with a low chance of negative side effects. As always, consult with your veterinarian prior to trying a new treatment option for your dog. Make sure to start treatment with the lowest dose possible and make gradual adjustments to find the treatment that works for your dog and their condition.
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
Works Cited
Bartner, Lisa R., Stephanie McGrath, Sangeeta Rao, Linda K. Hyatt, and Luke A. Wittenburg. "Pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol administered by 3 delivery methods at 2 different dosages to healthy dogs." Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research 82, no. 3 (2018): 178-183.
Fitzgerald, Kevin T., Alvin C. Bronstein, and Kristin L. Newquist. "Marijuana poisoning." Topics in companion animal medicine 28, no. 1 (2013): 8-12.
Gamble, Lauri-Jo, Jordyn M. Boesch, Christopher W. Frye, Wayne S. Schwark, Sabine Mann, Lisa Wolfe, Holly Brown, Erin S. Berthelsen, and Joseph J. Wakshlag. "Pharmacokinetics, safety, and clinical efficacy of cannabidiol treatment in osteoarthritic dogs." Frontiers in veterinary science 5 (2018): 165.
Grotenhermen, Franjo, and Kirsten Müller-Vahl. "The therapeutic potential of cannabis and cannabinoids." Deutsches Ärzteblatt International 109, no. 29-30 (2012): 495.
Hartsel, Joshua A., Kyle Boyar, Andrew Pham, Robert J. Silver, and Alexandros Makriyannis. "Cannabis in veterinary medicine: cannabinoid therapies for animals." In Nutraceuticals in Veterinary Medicine, pp. 121-155. Springer, Cham, 2019.
Kogan, L. R., P. W. Hellyer, and R. Schoenfeld-Tacher. "Dog owners’ use and perceptions of cannabis products." J Am Holist Vet Med Assoc 51 (2018): 26-33.
Kogan, Lori R., Peter W. Hellyer, and Narda G. Robinson. "Consumers’ perceptions of hemp products for animals." J Am Holist Vet Med Assoc 42 (2016): 40-8.
Kogan, Lori, Peter Hellyer, and Robin Downing. "The use of Cannabidiol-rich hemp oil extract to treat canine osteoarthritis-related pain: a pilot study." AHVMA J 58 (2020): 1-10.
Kogan, Lori, Regina Schoenfeld-Tacher, Peter Hellyer, and Mark Rishniw. "US veterinarians' knowledge, experience, and perception regarding the use of cannabidiol for canine medical conditions." Frontiers in veterinary science 5 (2019): 338.
Landa, Leoš, A. Sulcova, and Petr Gbelec. "The use of cannabinoids in animals and therapeutic implications for veterinary medicine: a review." Veterinární medicína 61, no. 3 (2016).
Lynch, Mary E., and Mark A. Ware. "Cannabinoids for the treatment of chronic non-cancer pain: an updated systematic review of randomized controlled trials." Journal of neuroimmune pharmacology 10, no. 2 (2015): 293-301.
McGrath, Stephanie, Lisa R. Bartner, Sangeeta Rao, Lori R. Kogan, and Peter W. Hellyer. "A report of adverse effects associated with the administration of cannabidiol in healthy dogs." veterinary medicine 1, no. 2 (2018): 6-8.
McGrath, Stephanie, Lisa R. Bartner, Sangeeta Rao, Rebecca A. Packer, and Daniel L. Gustafson. "Randomized blinded controlled clinical trial to assess the effect of oral cannabidiol administration in addition to conventional antiepileptic treatment on seizure frequency in dogs with intractable idiopathic epilepsy." Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 254, no. 11 (2019): 1301-1308.
Schluttenhofer, Craig, and Ling Yuan. "Challenges towards revitalizing hemp: A multifaceted crop." Trends in plant science 22, no. 11 (2017): 917-929.
]]>A dog’s paws are a critical part of their body. Healthy paws allow dogs to walk, run, dig, search for food, scratch themselves, swim, and play. Since their paws come in contact with the ground, there are a few hazards that we should be aware of to ensure our pet’s paws stay injury free during their exciting outdoor adventures in all weather conditions.
The paw is composed of skin, bone, tendons, ligaments, blood supply, and connective tissue. The footpad that comes in direct contact with the ground is made of special skin that provides insulation from hot and cold surfaces and cushion from impact. Dogs evolved from canines that would have to survive in extremely cold conditions so they retained some of those anatomical characteristics. Most notable is a special heat conserving structure made up of blood vessels that helps keep their paws warm on snow and ice, even over long periods of time (Ninomiya et al., 2011). This is similar to the mechanism that keeps penguin’s wings and legs from freezing in extremely cold and wet environments (Frost et al., 1975) and how artic foxes can keep their feet from freezing in icy water (Henshaw et al., 1972). In addition to their footpad, the dog’s paw consists of nails which help them dig and provide traction and fur for added protection. Water dogs have special webbing between their toes that help serve as paddles when swimming.
If you live somewhere that gets snow and ice, you will need to take some extra precautions to protect your dog’s paws during the winter. It is important to remember that while our feet may be bundled up in insulated and waterproof boots, our dogs are essentially barefoot. As previously mentioned, dogs are well adapted to handle cold temperatures on their paws, but some may still experience discomfort from snow and ice, especially when exposed to wet snow which has been shown to cause more paw stress than hard packed snow (Bradley et al., 1996). Salt is commonly added to sidewalks and driveways to help prevent ice. The sharp edge of the salt pieces can cut or cause discomfort to the surface of the footpad or they could end up stuck between your dog’s toes. If your dog is experiencing any skin dryness (common from dry heated buildings in the winter) resulting in skin cracking, the salt can cause further irritation and discomfort. Some salt treatments contain added chemicals to help melt the ice which could lead to dryness, itchiness, peeling, or irritation of your dog’s skin, especially if prolonged contact occurs.
One easy way to protect your dog’s feet from rough salt and snowy conditions is by outfitting them in boots specifically made for dogs. These boots are often waterproof and secure around the dog’s ankle or lower leg. When using boots on your dog for the first time, make sure you give your dog plenty of time to adjust. Let them wear the boots around the house for short periods of time to allow them to get comfortable to the feeling. Moreover, this will help prevent overloading their musculoskeletal system as they alter their gait to accommodate walking in boots (Lawman et al., 2018). This is similar to when we buy ourselves a new pair of running shoes. We will want to give our bodies some time to adjust before going out and running a marathon in new shoes. If boots are too uncomfortable for your dog, there is the option of applying paw wax to provide a layer of protection to your dog’s paw and prevent them from drying out. Waxes can also help prevent snow and ice from balling up on their paws. When using a wax product, always make sure it is food safe in case your dog ingests some when licking their paws. Another way to prevent snow and ice from accumulating on their paws is to keep the hair trimmed short between their toes and around their feet.
When purchasing salt for your own home, look for products that are marketed as pet safe. These will be less likely to contain harsh chemicals that can irritate or dry out your dog’s sensitive skin. Some may even have rounded granules to avoid jabbing or cutting your dogs feet when they walk across it. Using pet safe sidewalk salt not only benefits your own dog, but all the other dogs that walk by your home will appreciate it too! Finally, it can be beneficial to rinse off your dog’s feet after they get home from a walk. This can help clean away any debris that could cause irritation if left on your dog’s skin for prolonged periods.
During the summer, one of the biggest threats to your dog’s paws is burns from walking on hot surfaces. When air temperatures reach around 80 degrees Fahrenheit, asphalt temperatures may get hot enough to cause burns (Harrington et al., 1995). It is good to get into a routine of checking surfaces before walking your dog on them. You can do so by placing your hand on the surface. If you cannot comfortably hold your hand there for at least 5 seconds, then it is too hot to walk your dog on. Asphalt isn’t the only material that can cause burns – concrete, sidewalks, boat docks, sand, and even the bed of pick-up trucks can all reach damaging temperatures in the summer heat. Signs that your dog’s paws are getting burned include refusing to walk, limping, or redness or blisters on the footpad surface. If skin damage is visible, your dog should head to the vet for treatment to ease the pain and to prevent infection.
Scrapes from sharp objects can also hurt a dog’s paws. Keep an eye out for broken glass and avoid the area if possible. After passing the area, double check that there are no pieces stuck between your dog’s toes. Also, small pebbles can sometimes find themselves lodged between the toes leading to discomfort. Burrs or dried grasses such as Foxtail can have sharp edges that can penetrate your dog’s skin (Acker and Fergus, 1994). Sharp rocks or sticks are other hazards that could potentially cause an injury to your dog’s feet. Aside from physical objects, be aware that your dog’s paws may come in contact with irritating or toxic chemicals either from cars in parking lots or fertilizer runoff from yards. Washing your dog’s paws after a walk can prevent chemical irritation or accidental ingestion. Finally, some pests such as ticks could attach themselves to your dog’s paws. These can be easily missed since we often don’t check the bottoms of our dog’s feet or between their toes after an outdoor adventure.
To avoid burns, consider walking your dog in the morning or evening during the cooler part of the day when the sun is less intense. Always give dogs the option to walk in the grass which is often cooler than the walkway temperature (Yilmaz et al., 2008). Walking your dog often on abrasive surfaces such as concrete can help build up calluses which offer some protection from the heat. Use caution after your dog has been in the water as this can soften their paws making them more susceptible to burns. Paw waxes can be beneficial in the summer months as well as winter months as they provide an extra layer of protection to your dog’s skin. Boots may also be useful in the summer months to provide a protective physical barrier. However, boots should be used with caution as dogs cool themselves through their paws and may overheat when wearing them (Takahashi, 1964).
Most dogs probably don’t need their paws moisturized on a regular basis. But if you notice any cracking or peeling on their footpads, this could be a sign of dry skin. Dry paw pads can be moisturized using dog safe balms or creams. Products that contain Vitamin E are great. Vaseline or coconut oil are also generally regarded as safe to use on dogs. Paws that are well moisturized are less likely to be injured or to experience pain from salt exposure due to open wounds.
Sometimes dogs are not comfortable with having their paws handled. They may find it uncomfortable, ticklish, or may just be defensive of their body parts. Other dogs may have developed negative associations with their paws being handled, such as a bad nail trimming experience. Extra care and caution should be used when handling a dog’s paws that are injured. Since this can cause pain and further anxiety related to paw handling.
To help your dog feel more comfortable with you checking their paws, training exercises that work on desensitization and counterconditioning can be useful (Crowell-Davis, 2008). Use treats or a high value reward item to reward progress made towards paw handling. Work slowly in short training segments to keep your dog’s anxiety and arousal low. Your first training exercise may start with touching your dog’s leg gently and pairing it with a treat. Next, you may work towards touching their paws. Once they are comfortable with their paws being touched (this may take many training segments), you can advance to picking up their paw. From here, gradually increase the intensity of handling across training sessions. Never increase the intensity of training if your dog is showing signs of discomfort (Yin, 2007). Be patient and work at your dog’s pace because you will have to eventually gain their trust with their paws being checked. For a more advanced training exercise, you could even teach them to give you their paw on command. This can make checking their paws a rewarding experience for both dog and parent.
As responsible pet parents, we need to be conscious of our dog’s sensitive paws when we are out on walks. Winter and summer weather come with different potential hazards to be aware of. The best way to protect our dogs is through prevention. Whether you alter your walking routine, use boots, or provide extra preventative maintenance on their paws, there are many ways to make sure our dog’s paws remain healthy and comfortable throughout the year.
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
Works Cited
Acker, Randy, and Jim Fergus. Field Guide: Dog First Aid Emergency Care for the Hunting, Working, and Outdoor Dog. Wilderness Adventures Press, 1994.
Bradley, Dino M., Steven F. Swaim, Dana M. Vaughn, Robert D. Powers, John A. Mcguire, Gregory A. Reinhart, John Burr, and Rick A. Swenson. "Biochemical and histopathological evaluation of changes in sled dog paw skin associated with physical stress and cold temperatures." Veterinary Dermatology 7, no. 4 (1996): 203-208.
Crowell-Davis, Sharon L. "Desensitization and Counterconditioning: The Details of Success." Compendium (2008).
Frost, P. G. H., W. R. Siegfried, and P. J. Greenwood. "Arterio‐venous heat exchange systems in the Jackass penguin Spheniscus demersus." Journal of Zoology 175, no. 2 (1975): 231-241.
Harrington, William Z., Bonnie L. Strohschein, David Reedy, Jennifer E. Harrington, and William R. Schiller. "Pavement temperature and burns: streets of fire." Annals of emergency medicine 26, no. 5 (1995): 563-568.
Henshaw, Robert E., Larry S. Underwood, and Timothy M. Casey. "Peripheral thermoregulation: foot temperature in two arctic canines." Science 175, no. 4025 (1972): 988-990.
Lawman, Caleb, Kathleen Shorter, and Wendy Brown. "Ground force kinetic adaptations associated with canine boots." (2018).
Ninomiya, Hiroyoshi, Emi Akiyama, Kanae Simazaki, Atsuko Oguri, Momoko Jitsumoto, and Takaaki Fukuyama. "Functional anatomy of the footpad vasculature of dogs: scanning electron microscopy of vascular corrosion casts." Veterinary dermatology 22, no. 6 (2011): 475-481.
Takahashi, Yoshikazu. "Functional activity of the eccrine sweat glands in the toe-pads of the dog." The Tohoku journal of experimental medicine 83, no. 3 (1964): 205-219.
Yilmaz, Hasan, Süleyman Toy, M. A. Irmak, Sevgi Yilmaz, and Yahya Bulut. "Determination of temperature differences between asphalt concrete, soil and grass surfaces of the City of Erzurum, Turkey." Atmósfera 21, no. 2 (2008): 135-146.
Yin, Sophia. "Simple handling techniques for dogs." Compendium (2007).
]]>Taking your dog on walks is essential to their physical and mental health and is a great bonding activity for you and your furry friend. Many environments require your dog to be walked on a leash, both for their protection and the protection of those around them, such as young children or other animals. Some cities even have laws that require dogs to be kept on a leash in public areas. When walking your dog on a leash, various restraints can be used. Collars seem to be the most popular worldwide, but harnesses that attach around the dog’s body are rapidly growing in popularity. This article will explore the pros and cons of each option and will help guide you to select the best option for your dog.
Collars come in two main forms – those that wrap around the dog’s neck, or those that wrap around the dog’s head, like a halter. Neck collars can be made from various materials including fabric, leather, or even metal (in the case of choke or prong collars). The material type, collar width, and whether or not there is extra padding can all affect the amount of pressure that a dog feels when they pull on the leash or if the leash is jerked (Hunter et al., 2019). While some neck collars may be less severe than others, evidence continues to show that all neck collars have the potential to cause injury (Carter et al., 2020). The dog’s neck is home to nerves, the jugular vein, larynx, thyroid gland, and the trachea which could be damaged by the collar (Landsberg and Hunthausen, 1997). In severe cases, trauma from the collar could lead to musculoskeletal injuries (Hallgren, 1992) or even strangulation (Grohmann et al., 2013). Another, not as obvious threat to a dog’s health, is the fact that pressure from collars can increase pressure within a dog’s eye, which can be particularly harmful to those with eye conditions such as glaucoma or weak corneas (Pauli et al., 2006). It is important to keep in mind that while collars can cause harm when your dog lunges or when the lead is jerked, they can also be just as harmful if pressure is applied consistently over time (e.g., from pulling) (Carter et al., 2020). Due to these reasons, if you have a dog that pulls on walks, have a tendency to lunge towards squirrels or other dogs, is a breed with a delicate neck, or if your dog has eye problems, a head collar or harness might be a safer alternative when taking your dog on walks (Grainger et al., 2016). Some people worry about their dog’s comfort when walked in a head collar or harness, but studies show that once dogs are accustomed to them, there are no significant signs of stress or behavioral differences observed between dogs wearing collars or harnesses (Grainger et al., 2016; Ogburn et al., 1998).
One of the biggest advantages to walking your dog in a harness is that they protect your dog’s sensitive neck. Harnesses apply pressure to a dog’s chest or body, as opposed to collars that localize pressure to the throat. For breeds that have short muzzles and breathing difficulties (e.g., pugs and bulldogs), harnesses may be a better option since it does not affect their airway. Additionally, harnesses tend to be a more secure way to restrain your dog. If a collar is too loose, dogs can easily slip backwards out of them and escape. Harnesses often have two loops around the dog, making them more difficult to wiggle their way out of. Some dogs may be easier to walk in a harness, especially if they like to pull or are prone to rapidly lunging. Dogs are slightly more likely to pull in a regular neck collar than they are in a harness (Ogburn et al., 1998).
Harnesses come in a variety of materials, colors, and shapes. The wide variety of options can be overwhelming when choosing the right harness for your dog. Ultimately, the most important factor is going to be the shape of the harness, or how it attaches to your dog’s body. Harness shape styles can be grouped into three main categories:
1. H-shaped style: This style of harness has two loops, one that goes across the lower neck/bust area, and one that loops around the trunk. These loops are connected along the back and or the stomach. In most cases, the leash clips along the back at the strap that loops around the trunk. This means that when pressure is applied, most of it directed towards the dog’s body, away from their sensitive neck. These harnesses are thought to be less restrictive to a dog’s movement and are recommended for small or medium sized dogs, or puppies.
2. X-shaped style: This style is composed of two semi-circles of material that loop under the dog’s neck and behind the shoulder blades and join at the dog’s back near their shoulder. The leash clips along the back where these loops meet. While this harness may work just fine for some dogs, it has the potential to place pressure on the dog’s shoulders which can affect their posture, joints, and may rub hair off in the armpit area.
3. Y-shaped style: In harnesses referred to as “y-shaped”, one loop of material wraps horizontally across the dog’s chest, and a second is secured vertically around their torso. In this style of harness, pressure is mostly exerted on the chest of the dog. This style is good for controlling dogs that may suddenly lunge (i.e., those with strong prey drives or reactive dogs) and is recommended for large breed dogs.
Some harnesses have built in padding to help reduce pressure applied to the dog’s body. Others offer leash clips in front of the dog or the top of the dog, depending on the owner’s preference. It is also good to consider how easy the harness is to put on and take off your dog. Some easily slip over the dog’s head and are secured with a clip, while others may require a bit more wrangling.
Many companies that sell harnesses will provide measuring guides or recommendations for breed or weight ranges to help consumers choose the best size harness for their dog. Harnesses are adjustable, so once you purchase the one closest to your dog’s size, it will need to be fine tuned to fit your exact dog. Harnesses should be tight enough that the dog can not slip out of it, but not too tight to cause discomfort, rubbing, or restriction of movement. An easy check to see if the harness is too tight is to see if you can fit 2-3 fingers between the harness and your dog’s body. Regular checks of harness fit should be performed as harnesses can loosen over time and your dog’s weight may fluctuate throughout the seasons, causing the need for the harness to be readjusted.
While harnesses offer many advantages over traditional neck collars, there are some potential drawbacks to them that should be considered. Pressure may be exerted unevenly on the dog’s body when they pull on their leash. This is especially noticeable if the dog is always walked on one side or the other, such as in the case of guide dogs (Peham et al., 2013). Harnesses with chest straps could reduce shoulder extension, altering the dog’s natural gait (Lafuente et al., 2019). A restricted gait could lead to uneven muscle gain, uneven muscle atrophy, or extra stress on their joints which could cause inflammation or contribute to arthritis (Blake et al., 2019). Wider or more padded harnesses may offer a relief in pressure, but this may come at a trade-off as they are more likely to restrict the dog’s movement. These issues can be minimized through selecting a harness that is not restrictive to your particular dog, proper training of good leash manners (loose-leash walking), and by avoiding jerking on your dog’s leash for any reason.
If you made the decision to use a harness to walk your dog, you may be tempted to abandon their neck collar altogether. Even if you are not directly using the collar to walk them, the neck collar still can serve important functions. For one, the neck collar is an ideal location to keep identification tags. These can be critical in reuniting you with your dog if they get lost. Secondly, a neck collar can serve as a back up in case the harness breaks. Finally, new technology continues to hit the market including sensors that track your dog’s activity levels or location (e.g., Weiss et al., 2013). Many of these are designed to be attached to a neck collar that your dog wears all day.
In summary, if you have a well-trained dog that walks loosely on a leash and is unlikely to suddenly lunge, then you are likely to be alright walking them in either a collar or a harness. However, if you have a dog that pulls on the leash, you may want to consider a harness to prevent damage to their neck or eyes. Ensuring that their harness fits properly is important to avoid hindering their natural gait or causing discomfort. Thankfully, there are many options available on the market so you are bound to find a harness or collar that fits your individual dog so you can enjoy many safe and responsible adventures with your furry best friend!
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
Works Cited
Blake, S., Williams, R., & de Godoy, R. F. (2019). A Systematic Review of the Biomechanical Effects of Harness and Head-Collar use in Dogs. bioRxiv, 759258.
Carter, A., McNally, D., & Roshier, A. (2020). Canine collars: an investigation of collar type and the forces applied to a simulated neck model. Veterinary Record.
Grainger, J., Wills, A. P., & Montrose, V. T. (2016). The behavioral effects of walking on a collar and harness in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris). Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 14, 60-64.
Grohmann, K., Dickomeit, M. J., Schmidt, M. J., & Kramer, M. (2013). Severe brain damage after punitive training technique with a choke chain collar in a German shepherd dog. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 8(3), 180-184.
Hallgren A. Spinal abnormalities in dogs. Animal Behaviour Consultants Newsletter 1992;9.
Hunter, A., Blake, S., & De Godoy, R. F. (2019). Pressure and force on the canine neck when exercised using a collar and leash. Veterinary and Animal Science, 8, 100082.
Lafuente, M. P., Provis, L., & Schmalz, E. A. (2019). Effects of restrictive and non‐restrictive harnesses on shoulder extension in dogs at walk and trot. Veterinary Record, 184(2), 64-64.
Landsberg, G. M., & Hunthausen, W. (1997). Handbook of behaviour problems of the dog and cat. Butterworth-Heinemann.
Ogburn, P., Crouse, S., Martin, F., & Houpt, K. (1998). Comparison of behavioral and physiological responses of dogs wearing two different types of collars. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 61(2), 133-142.
Pauli, A. M., Bentley, E., Diehl, K. A., & Miller, P. E. (2006). Effects of the application of neck pressure by a collar or harness on intraocular pressure in dogs. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association, 42(3), 207-211.
Peham, C., Limbeck, S., Galla, K., & Bockstahler, B. (2013). Pressure distribution under three different types of harnesses used for guide dogs. The Veterinary Journal, 198, e93-e98.
Weiss, G. M., Nathan, A., Kropp, J. B., & Lockhart, J. W. (2013, September). WagTag: a dog collar accessory for monitoring canine activity levels. In Proceedings of the 2013 ACM conference on Pervasive and ubiquitous computing adjunct publication (pp. 405-414).
]]>Friendship is a wonderful thing that makes our lives more enjoyable. Friends are with us through the highs and lows and it would be difficult to imagine a life without them. For those of us with dogs, we probably have wondered if they form similar relationships with other dogs and whether they establish preferences for the companionship of some over others. This article will explore friendship between dogs, between dogs and humans, and even between dogs and other species.
In scientific reports, there are rarely any mentions of “friendship” between animals, let alone dogs. This does not necessarily mean that dogs don’t have friends though. It turns out that scientists often refer to what we might recognize as friendship as “social bonds” (Brent et al., 2013). Social bonds resembling friendship could be defined as bidirectional affiliative interactions between animals that occur frequently and consistently over time (Massen et al., 2010). These relationships form outside of breeding or parental care obligations. Social bonds in domestic dogs have often been studied and used as a model species to understand the physiological aspects underlying friendship formation, as they have been known to form long-lasting friendships with other dogs (Topál et al., 1998) and also with humans (Prato-Previde et al., 2003). When dogs engage in positive, friendly interactions with one another, their oxytocin levels rise, suggesting this hormone plays a significant role in the formation and maintenance of friendship bonds (Romero et al., 2014).
One of the best indicators that your dog likes another dog is that they will voluntarily spend time with them. Canines that like one another will rest near one another, sometimes in direct physical contact (McCreery, 2000). In addition to resting with one another, dogs that are friends will spend more time engaged in affiliative interactions or play behaviors. The following are examples of behaviors that could indicate that your dog likes another dog (Cavalli et al., 2016; Brent et al., 2013):
There is evidence to suggest that dogs do miss their friends during periods of separation. In extreme cases, such as when a pair of dogs that have spent their entire lives together are separated, it is common to observe signs of grief. This could include lethargy, refusing to eat, or appearing distraught as they attempt to locate their missing companion. Similar observations have been made during periods of separation from their owner. In one study, dogs spent time searching, scratching and jumping at the door, oriented towards the owner’s empty chair, and vocalized when their owner left the room. The same study also found that dogs greeted their owners more enthusiastically and for longer durations than when they were reunited with a stranger (Prato-Previde et al., 2003) and after being separated for longer durations (Rehn, 2013). If bonded pairs of dogs do need to be separated, it is recommended to do so gradually. If possible, consistent play dates can help a dog cope with not being with their friend.
It seems that friendship continues to exist in humans and animal populations since it is an evolutionarily advantageous concept. Being social and having friends helps reduce one’s risk of predation and can help increase their ability to find and defend sources of food (Alexander, 1974). Social relationships have some obvious benefits related to reproduction and raising young, but non-sexual and non-kin relationships seem to benefit animals and humans in other ways (Seyfarth and Cheney, 2012). For instance, in humans the quality and quantity of social relationships can directly impact a person’s mental health and can increase the length of their life (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2010). Similarly, in animals, those with strong long lasting social bonds lived longer lives and have better offspring survival rates (Silk et al., 2009).
Yes, there is truth behind the famous expression that dogs are a man’s best friend! Extraordinary social bonds between dogs and humans are widely prevalent, from working dog relationships with their handlers, such as between sled dogs and mushers (Kuhl, 2011), police and police dogs, to everyday pets at home. These relationships are long lasting, often for the entire life of the dog, and positive in nature (e.g., lots of play and affection involved). In multi-dog households, dogs seem just as motivated to play with their dog companions as with their owners (Rooney et al., 2000). When dogs and humans have friendly interactions between their own species, their levels of the hormone oxytocin rise. A study found that when humans play with dogs the same rise in oxytocin is observed (Rehn, 2013), suggesting this interspecies relationship is similar in nature. Overall, it appears that dogs form strong attachment relationships with humans and show preferences for certain humans (e.g., their owners) over others (Kerepesi et al., 2015). It has even been shown that dogs perform jealous behaviors including snapping, getting in between, and trying to push their owner away when their owner showed affectionate behaviors towards another dog (Harris and Poruvost, 2014).
Unfortunately, scientific evidence of dog interspecies friendships is lacking, however there are plenty of documented mixed animal friendships thanks to cell phone cameras and social media (Dagg, 2011).
Many of these recorded interspecies animal bonds occur between predators and their usual prey. This seems unusual but could be explained by certain stressful events that may alter typical animal interactions (Silva, 2017). In some cases, separation of a young animal from their mother or social group could lead them to forming bonds with unlikely animals. Some animals may care for young animals of another species due to having high levels of mothering instincts (RT, 2012). An example of a well-documented relationship between a dog and a dear provides evidence for unlikely friendships facilitated by stressful experiences (BBCHDDocumentary, 2013). Another well documented interspecies dog friendship involves a dog and a cheetah at the San Diego Zoo. In this instance, the Cheetah was orphaned as a young cub and was paired with a puppy for social companionship. In addition to playmates or maternal care, Heymann et al., (2007) proposed some potential benefits to mixed-species groups which included decreased predatory risk, increased foraging efficiency, and increased resource defense ability.
In conclusion, evidence suggests that dogs form social bonds, similar to friendships between humans, with other dogs, people, and sometimes even other species. These social bonds are affiliative, long-lasting, and appears to have both physical and mental health benefits to both parties involved in the relationship. Furthermore, it is likely that dogs will develop preferences for some individuals over others, which could equate to having ‘best friends’. There is also evidence that dogs recognize the absence of their friends and will attempt to reunite themselves. With our pet dogs, it is important to monitor their behaviors around other dogs to ensure they are engaging in positive ways. With close observation, we can likely determine who our dog’s best friends are based on who they prefer to spend the most time with, either while resting, playing, or performing other friendly behaviors with. If we keep this in mind, we can ensure that our dogs have frequent play dates with their preferred partners, leading to a higher quality of life for our companions.
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
Works Cited
Alexander, Richard D. "The evolution of social behavior." Annual review of ecology and systematics 5, no. 1 (1974): 325-383.
BBCHDDocumentary, (2013). animal odd couples Full documentary 2013. [video] [2016-03-01].
Brent, Lauren JN, Steve WC Chang, Jean-François Gariépy, and Michael L. Platt. "The neuroethology of friendship." Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1316, no. 1 (2014): 1.
Cavalli, Camila María, Marina Victoria Dzik, Fabricio Carballo Pozzo Ardizzi, and Mariana Bentosela. "Post-conflict affiliative behaviors towards humans in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris)." (2016).
Dagg, Anne Innis. Animal friendships. Cambridge University Press, 2011.
Harris, Christine R., and Caroline Prouvost. "Jealousy in dogs." PloS one 9, no. 7 (2014): e94597.
Heymann, Eckhard W., and Hannah M. Buchanan-Smith. "The behavioural ecology of mixed‐species troops of callitrichine primates." Biological Reviews 75, no. 2 (2000): 169-190.
Holt-Lunstad, Julianne, Timothy B. Smith, and J. Bradley Layton. "Social relationships and mortality risk: a meta-analytic review." PLoS medicine 7, no. 7 (2010): e1000316.
Kerepesi, A., Dóka, A., & Miklósi, Á. (2015). Dogs and their human companions: the effect of familiarity on dog–human interactions. Behavioural processes, 110, 27-36.
Kuhl, Gail. "Human-sled dog relations: what can we learn from the stories and experiences of mushers?." Society & Animals 19, no. 1 (2011): 22-37.
Massen, Jorg, Elisabeth Sterck, and Henk de Vos. "Close social associations in animals and humans: functions and mechanisms of friendship." Behaviour 147, no. 11 (2010): 1379-1412.
McCreery, E. Kim. "Spatial relationships as an indicator of successful pack formation in free-ranging African wild dogs." Behaviour 137, no. 5 (2000): 579-590.
Prato-Previde, Emanuela, Deborah Mary Custance, Caterina Spiezio, and Francesca Sabatini. "Is the dog-human relationship an attachment bond? An observational study using Ainsworth's strange situation." Behaviour (2003): 225-254.
Rehn, Therese. Best of friends? Investigating the dog-human relationship. Vol. 2013, no. 2013: 67. 2013.
Romero, Teresa, Miho Nagasawa, Kazutaka Mogi, Toshikazu Hasegawa, and Takefumi Kikusui. "Oxytocin promotes social bonding in dogs." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111, no. 25 (2014): 9085-9090.
Rooney, Nicola J., John WS Bradshaw, and Ian H. Robinson. "A comparison of dog–dog and dog–human play behaviour." Applied Animal Behaviour Science 66, no. 3 (2000): 235-248.
RT, (2012). Video: Dog adopts, nurses orphaned tiger cubs in Russia. [video] [2016-03-08].
Seyfarth, Robert M., and Dorothy L. Cheney. "The evolutionary origins of friendship." Annual review of psychology 63 (2012): 153-177.
Silk, Joan B., Jacinta C. Beehner, Thore J. Bergman, Catherine Crockford, Anne L. Engh, Liza R. Moscovice, Roman M. Wittig, Robert M. Seyfarth, and Dorothy L. Cheney. "The benefits of social capital: close social bonds among female baboons enhance offspring survival." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 276, no. 1670 (2009): 3099-3104.
Silva, Nadil. "Interspecies animal" friendships"." (2017).
Topál, József, Ádám Miklósi, Vilmos Csányi, and Antal Dóka. "Attachment behavior in dogs (Canis familiaris): a new application of Ainsworth's (1969) Strange Situation Test." Journal of comparative psychology 112, no. 3 (1998): 219.
]]>Many dog parents have noticed that their dogs seem to know when it is time for a walk or when mealtime is. Others have noticed their dog seem to know when the kids will arrive home from school or when their partner will be home from work by eagerly waiting at the door or window minutes before their arrival. So how do dogs seem to know the time?
There is still a lot to learn about the inner workings of dogs’ minds, however, there does seem to be some evidence that dogs perceive time passing, although maybe in a different way than humans do. To study whether dogs can consciously perceive time, we often explore their memory abilities, as they are intricately linked. There are two main types of long-term memory, they are:
In animals, it is believed that most of their memories are implicit, however there is some evidence of animals explicitly recalling memories, particularly around topics that are biologically relevant – such as where to find food.
A special type of explicit memory – called episodic memory, is when the ‘where’, ‘what’, and ‘when’ details around an event are recalled. It can be thought of as a sort of mental time travel. This form of memory has been studied in humans, apes, rats, and a few other species. Notably, great apes appear to have episodic-like memory (Martin-Ordas et al., 2010). There is also good evidence that rats (Roberts et al., 2008) and some birds, like magpies (Zinkivskay et al., 2009), do too. However, there has been little investigation into whether dogs possess episodic-like memory capabilities and the ability to tell time, though Fugazza et al. (2016) did find some evidence of episodic-like memory when testing the retention ability of dogs over 1-minute and 1-hour long intervals.
A recent study conducted in mice found the presence of brain neurons which turn on like a clock when an animal is in “waiting mode” (Heys and Dombeck, 2018). It is believed that these special neurons and the brain region they inhabit might aid in forming time memory. While this particular study was conducted on mice, it is believed that other mammals and birds also have these brain capabilities. Other studies have explored whether dogs can measure time intervals. In other words, whether dogs can mentally measure the amount of time that has passed. Findings from these studies suggest that dogs, like other mammals, can approximate the amount of time that has passed since a given event (Domeniconi and Machado, 2017; Macpherson and Roberts, 2017).
In addition to consciously perceiving time, there are other unconscious mechanisms that dogs may use to measure time including:
These methods of measuring time will be explored in further sections of this article.
The amount of time that dogs can be left home alone depends on the individual. If the dog is young or old, they may require more frequent trips outside to go potty. If they are a high energy dog, they may need breaks throughout the day to relieve their boredom. Many of us feel guilty when we leave our dogs home alone during the workday, and one study examined how these periods of separation affect our dogs. Their results found that longer periods of absence lead to more excited welcomes to their parents when they returned home, suggesting that dogs are in fact affected by the duration they are left alone (Rehn and Keeling, 2011). However, this study did note that the time of absence did not appear to cause distress when the dogs were alone (it only affected the intensity of their reunion). This might mean that dogs that do not suffer from separation anxiety should be fine with being left alone for the workday, but it is not a bad idea to consider hiring a dog walker to give them a mid-day break.
If you consistently arrive home at the same time each day, it is highly likely that your dog is aware of when you will be back. There are two main cues that researchers hypothesize dogs use to determine when you will be home – the amount of daylight, and how things smell. Dogs likely associate how bright the daylight is or certain shadows cast by light in the home with important events that happen in their day – such as when their family comes home or when it is time for a walk. Another interesting theory is that dogs may use their sense of smell to estimate the time of day. Afterall, dogs have an extremely good sense of smell and this likely affects how they perceive the world around them. Throughout the day, air in the home rises and falls as the temperature changes, carrying scents with them. This could mean that the morning may smell different than the evening to a dog. Dogs may also be able to measure how long you have been gone by judging how much the scent has dissipated. That is, a strong odor is probably a new scent, whereas a weak odor is an old one (Horowitz, 2016).
Dogs may be able to judge mealtime through associations with other daily routines within your home. For example, you beginning to prep your own meal might signal to your dog that their meal is on the way. Another way that dogs may predict their mealtime is through simply feeling hungry. Their bodies are driven by circadian rhythms that regulate their biological activities such as sleeping, waking, and eating. This means their body may naturally signal that they need to eat around the time that they are normally fed.
The duration that dogs can remember things for partly depends on how important the event or object is to the dog. In a conducted survey of dog owners, people believed that their dogs never forgot their owner, family members, what their leash meant, their food, or their neighbors. However, it seemed that dogs had a difficult time remembering pain, separation, unfamiliar dogs or people for long periods of time (Pongrácz et al., 2012). Dogs are highly social animals, and thus have a great ability to remember socially relevant individuals. One study found that dogs and their offspring could remember each other after years of separation (Hepper, 1994). Since dogs rely on location-based cues to find hidden food, dogs have an excellent ability to remember landmark information (Fiset et al., 2007). To test how long dogs can remember a task they were trained to do, researchers asked dogs to perform the trained task after various periods of time where they did not practice the task. This study found that dogs could remember their training for at least 4 weeks (Demant et al., 2011). A dog’s memory can also be impacted by age. Similar to what is observed in humans, older dogs seem to perform worse in memory tests than younger dogs (Head et al., 1995).
In summary, while it is not conclusive, there does appear to be evidence that dogs can perceive time passing and can judge the time of day that significant events occur. They can either do this consciously, using a region in their brain that can measure passing time, or unconsciously through associations made with the amount of daylight, the smell of their environment, bodily cues such as hunger, or through other associations with their environment. Dogs seem to have the ability to remember important individuals over periods of years and can remember tasks for weeks at a minimum.
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
Works Cited
Demant, Helle, Jan Ladewig, Thorsten JS Balsby, and Torben Dabelsteen. "The effect of frequency and duration of training sessions on acquisition and long-term memory in dogs." Applied Animal Behaviour Science 133, no. 3-4 (2011): 228-234.
Domeniconi, Camila, and Armando Machado. "Temporal bisection task with dogs: An exploratory study." Psychology & Neuroscience 10, no. 1 (2017): 101.
Fiset, Sylvain, and Valérie LeBlanc. "Invisible displacement understanding in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris): the role of visual cues in search behavior." Animal Cognition 10, no. 2 (2007): 211-224.
Fugazza, Claudia, Ákos Pogány, and Ádám Miklósi. "Recall of others’ actions after incidental encoding reveals episodic-like memory in dogs." Current Biology 26, no. 23 (2016): 3209-3213.
Head, E., R. Mehta, J. Hartley, M. Kameka, B. J. Cummings, C. W. Cotman, W. W. Ruehl, and N. W. Milgram. "Spatial learning and memory as a function of age in the dog." Behavioral neuroscience 109, no. 5 (1995): 851.
Hepper, Peter G. "Long-term retention of kinship recognition established during infancy in the domestic dog." Behavioural processes 33, no. 1-2 (1994): 3-14.
Heys, James G., and Daniel A. Dombeck. "Evidence for a subcircuit in medial entorhinal cortex representing elapsed time during immobility." Nature neuroscience 21, no. 11 (2018): 1574-1582.
Horowitz, Alexandra. Being a dog: Following the dog into a world of smell. Simon and Schuster, 2016.
Macpherson, Krista, and William A. Roberts. "On the clock: Interval timing and overshadowing in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris)." Journal of Comparative Psychology 131, no. 4 (2017): 348.
Martin-Ordas, Gema, Daniel Haun, Fernando Colmenares, and Josep Call. "Keeping track of time: evidence for episodic-like memory in great apes." Animal cognition 13, no. 2 (2010): 331-340.
Pongrácz, Péter, Veronika Benedek, Sybille Enz, and Ádám Miklósi. "The owners’ assessment of “everyday dog memory”: A questionnaire study." Interaction
Rehn, Therese, and Linda J. Keeling. "The effect of time left alone at home on dog welfare." Applied Animal Behaviour Science 129, no. 2-4 (2011): 129-135.
Roberts, William A., Miranda C. Feeney, Krista MacPherson, Mark Petter, Neil McMillan, and Evanya Musolino. "Episodic-like memory in rats: is it based on when or how long ago?." Science 320, no. 5872 (2008): 113-115.
Zinkivskay, Ann, Farrah Nazir, and Tom V. Smulders. "What–where–when memory in magpies (Pica pica)." Animal cognition 12, no. 1 (2009): 119-125.
]]>People consider many factors when deciding which dog they should adopt. The dog’s breed, size, age, and sex can all have impacts on the dog’s health and behavior. This article will delve into the physical differences as well as the perceived behavioral differences between male and female dogs to help guide your selection of a dog that is suitable for your lifestyle.
Male and female dogs differ at the biological level. At conception, a male dog will receive an X and Y chromosome, a female dog will have two X chromosomes, or a mix of these chromosomes from their parents for intersex dogs. These chromosomes help guide physical development of sexual dimorphic traits – those that differ between sexes, including reproductive organs. Most notably, males (XY) will develop testicles and a penis, whereas females (XX) will develop ovaries, a uterus, and a vagina. Intersex dogs may develop a variety of these reproductive and physical characteristics.
In addition to differences in reproductive organs, male dogs tend to be larger, both in body weight and height, than female dogs (Scott and Fuller, 2012). However, female dogs tend to reach maturity faster than male dogs (Helmink et al., 2000). These physical differences are mostly attributed to different hormones associated with the reproductive system.
While these hormones play a large role in the differences between sexes, it is important to consider that many pet dogs are spayed (removal of the ovaries, fallopian tubes, and uterus) or neutered (removal of the testes), meaning that these differences can vary depending on if and when they were altered. There is evidence suggesting that spaying female dogs can prevent mammary cancer (Sorenmo et al., 2000) and uterine infections and neutering male dogs can prevent testicular cancer and enlarged prostate glands (Warnes, 2018). Spaying and neutering can also help prevent some undesirable behaviors associated with the desire to find a mate such as mounting, scent marking, and escaping and roaming to find a potential mate, as well as some forms of aggression (Hopkins et al., 1976; Cannas et al., 2018).
Different physical and hormonal characteristics of male and female dogs can lead to observed behavioral differences between the sexes. The following are a list of traits associated more with male or female dogs based upon the scientific literature:
There is not much scientific evidence regarding which sexes of dogs get along better, but there is plenty of anecdotal evidence suggesting that dogs of the opposite sex tend to get along the best. Many dog professionals will suggest that if you already have a dog at home and are looking to get another, consider adopting a dog of the opposite sex. It is believed that dogs of the same sex may be more competitive with one another.
While sex can play a role in selecting your next dog, it should not play the largest role in deciding on your next companion. Traits like the dog’s temperament and personality may be the best determinants for how well two dogs will get along. For example, if your current dog has a strong, bold personality, they may butt heads with a similarly bold dog. Confident and shy dogs may also pair well as the confident dog can help build confidence in the shy dog, without feeling threatened. Additionally, the size of the new dog should be considered to help prevent accidental injuries that could occur during play. Ultimately, there are many success stories of diverse pairs of dogs that get along just fine as long as their personalities are compatible.
The decision to get a male of female dog is not an easy one. Yes, there are noted behavioral differences between them, but if you plan on having your pet spayed or neutered these differences may diminish or disappear completely. Instead, the emphasis should be placed on the dog’s personality, energy level, and breed specific care requirements. Broad generalizations about a dog’s behavior based on sex alone should be avoided, as each dog is an individual and with different backgrounds and life experiences. In general, it is recommended that active people select higher energy level dogs that will be glad to join them on walks and other adventures. More sedentary people may be better matched with calm dogs that will enjoy staying put and do not demand intense exercise (Utz, 2014). Another study found that people with excellent compatibilities with their dogs reported higher subjective happiness scores, lower perceived stress scores, and had a mean lower number of doctor visits (González-Ramírez, 2019). This study also suggested that the sex of the dog did not contribute to how compatible the dog-human relationship was.
In summary, there are physical differences between male and female dogs, with males typically being larger and females typically maturing earlier. There are also behavioral differences, with males being perceived as more active and aggressive, and females being more affectionate and easier to train. These differences are likely due to hormones and may decrease if animals are spayed or neutered. When bringing home a new dog, their sex may impact how large the dog will grow, their likelihood to be compatible with another dog, and what personality traits they are prone to possess. In the grand scheme of things though, sex should not be emphasized as highly as the individual dog’s personality traits which will have the greatest impact on the success of the human-dog and dog-dog relationship. Making a decision on a dog based on their individual characteristics will ultimately lead to a stress free and happy life together.
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
Works Cited
Borchelt, P. L. (1983). Aggressive behavior of dogs kept as companion animals: classification and influence of sex, reproductive status and breed. Applied Animal Ethology, 10(1-2), 45-61.
Bradshaw, J. W. S., Goodwin, D., Lea, A. M., & Whitehead, S. L. (1996). A survey of the behavioural characteristics of pure-bred dogs in the United Kingdom. Veterinary Record, 138(19), 465-468.
Cannas, S., Talamonti, Z., Mazzola, S., Minero, M., Picciolini, A., & Palestrini, C. (2018). Factors associated with dog behavioral problems referred to a behavior clinic. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 24, 42-47.
González-Ramírez, M. T. (2019). Compatibility between humans and their dogs: benefits for both. Animals, 9(9), 674.
Hart, B. L., & Hart, L. A. (1985). Selecting pet dogs on the basis of cluster analysis of breed behavior profiles and gender. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 186(11), 1181-1185.
Helmink, S. K., Shanks, R. D., & Leighton, E. A. (2000). Breed and sex differences in growth curves for two breeds of dog guides. Journal of animal science, 78(1), 27-32.
Hopkins, S. G., Schubert, T. A., & Hart, B. L. (1976). Castration of adult male dogs: effects on roaming, aggression, urine marking, and mounting. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 168(12), 1108-1110.
Lore, R. K., & Eisenberg, F. B. (1986). Avoidance reactions of domestic dogs to unfamiliar male and female humans in a kennel setting. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 15(3), 261-266.
Müller, C. A., Mayer, C., Dörrenberg, S., Huber, L., & Range, F. (2011). Female but not male dogs respond to a size constancy violation. Biology Letters, 7(5), 689-691.
Scott, J. P., & Fuller, J. L. (2012). Genetics and the Social Behavior of the Dog (Vol. 570). University of Chicago Press.
Sorenmo, K. U., Shofer, F. S., & Goldschmidt, M. H. (2000). Effect of spaying and timing of spaying on survival of dogs with mammary carcinoma. Journal of veterinary internal medicine, 14(3), 266-270.
Utz, R. L. (2014). Walking the dog: The effect of pet ownership on human health and health behaviors. Social Indicators Research, 116(2), 327-339.
Warnes, C. (2018). An update on the risks and benefits of neutering in dogs. The Veterinary Nurse, 9(3), 150-155.
]]>Many would argue that the love and companionship of a dog is priceless. Dogs often become members of our family and we are willing to go to great lengths to provide them with the care they need. Studies show that people are making home purchasing decisions to accommodate their dogs (Donovan, 2017) and are spending more on pet supplies and vet care than ever before (APPA, 2016). While it may be impossible to put a dollar amount on a dog’s love, there are real financial costs associated with taking care of a dog properly. One study conducted in the United Kingdom showed that pet owners (98 percent of those surveyed) underestimated the cost of owning a pet through its lifetime (PDSA, 2017). The American Kennel Club (Reisen, 2017) estimates that the average cost to care for a dog over its lifetime is around $15,000, or around $1,000 per year, while other sources estimate this value to be much higher (Forbes, 2011). The overall cost of course varies depending on the dog’s breed, health status, and where you live. This article aims to help individuals estimate the true cost of a dog, including those expenses that may not be obvious.
When bringing a dog home for the first time, you should be prepared to spend a bit upfront on purchases such as pet supplies, vet care, and the dog themselves. Moreover, there are typically two routes you can take to obtain a dog. The first option is to adopt a dog from a shelter or a rescue. Shelters typically charge an adoption fee which helps cover the costs of getting the dog ready for adoption (vet exam, critical vaccines, etc.). Some shelters run specials with reduced or waived adoption fees for special events or to help clear out space in the shelter for new dogs. The other option is to purchase a dog from a breeder. Breeders typically charge more money than shelters. But they often come with guarantees about the genetic health of the dog. In the grand scheme of things, the adoption/purchase cost of a new dog is unsubstantial compared to care and maintenance costs.
Soon after adopting your fury friend, they will need to visit the vet to make sure they are heartworm negative, up to date on vaccines, free of worms or other parasites, and to get spayed or neutered if they are a puppy. Many owners also opt to have their new pet micro-chipped for peace of mind in case they ever run away (Lord et al., 2007). You will also need to purchase some initial supplies to create a safe and comfortable environment for your dog. These can include dog beds, food and water bowls, a leash and collar or harness, a crate, toys, grooming supplies, and coats depending on the dog’s hair type and the climate where you live. Additionally, it is highly recommended to enroll in a puppy socialization class or a beginner’s obedience course to help set your dog up for success (Howell et al., 2015).
One of the most obvious recurring expenses of owning a dog is paying to feed them. This cost can vary a lot depending on the quality of food purchased and the size of the dog. Dry food is the most affordable, but premium wet food options are available.
Another well-known recurring cost associated with dog ownership are vet exams. At the very minimum your dog should see a vet once a year for their annual check-up. This annual vet visit is necessary to purchase preventive medications for your dog such as heart worm medication, prescription flea and tick preventatives, and some supplements. According to the AVMA (2020), the average veterinary expenditure per dog per year is $253. Often, puppies and elderly dogs require more frequent visits to the vet to manage their health. Additional vet costs include vaccine boosters and dental cleanings (Holmstrom et al., 2013).
Over time, you may need to replace some of the supplies you initially purchased for you dog. Dog beds wear out over time and toys end up getting destroyed. Treats and bones will also need to be replenished every so often. Depending on your local ordinances, you may also need to purchase a dog license. These will need to be renewed each year.
Depending on your lifestyle, there may be some additional expenses associated with caring for a dog. For instance, if you work long hours, you may need to hire a dog walker. Puppies and elderly dogs require frequent bathroom breaks and high energy dogs will likely need a lunch time walk to relive any pent-up energy or boredom. Some people may consider sending their dogs to a doggie day care so they are not sitting home alone all day.
For people that travel, you will need to make arrangements for the care of your dog in your absence. Boarding facilities are one option, or you may hire a pet sitter to stay at your home. Pet sitters often cost more than boarding facilities, but they allow your dog to stay in a comfortable environment with their usual routine (Storer, 2012).
If you rent a home or an apartment, there may be additional pet fees or cleaning fees to consider. Some apartments charge monthly pet rent or may require a hefty deposit for any potential damages your dog may cause. On the subject of cleaning, another additional expense of dog ownership are cleaning supplies such as hair removal tools, a vacuum that works on pet hair, and stain removers for carpeting or upholstery.
Unfortunately, over the course of your dog’s lifetime you may encounter some unexpected expenses. Dogs are living beings, and sometimes they get ill or suffer an injury that requires emergency veterinary care. Emergency vet visits cost more, and treatment costs can add up quickly. If surgery is required, it is not unusual for bills to extend into the thousands of dollars range. It is important to have either a savings account with emergency medical funds set aside for your dog, or to pay for pet insurance to help protect you and your furry friend during adverse events. Another unexpected expense that is good to be prepared for is training. As dogs mature, you may notice some problem behaviors arising such as aggression, destructiveness, or accidents in the home. These issues may require the help of a professional behaviorist or trainer to solve. These services can be expensive as they are tailored to your specific dog, environment, and lifestyle.
Before committing to a dog, it is a great idea to estimate how much it will cost you. Ensuring you can afford a dog can help prevent financial stress down the road and ensure that your dog receives the care they deserve. The following table provides typical ranges or averages of costs associated with owning a dog. Remember that costs can vary widely depending upon where you live, the breed of your dog (especially their size and grooming needs), and the age or health status of your dog.
One-time Expenses |
Typical Range or Average Per Year |
Source |
Your Estimate |
Adoption fee |
$0 - $1000+ |
|
|
Microchip |
$15-$40 |
Yancey, 2015; Perrin, 2009 |
|
Spay/neuter |
$146 |
Perrin, 2009 |
|
Vaccines |
$15-100 |
Wellness, 2018 |
|
Heart worm test |
$45 - $55 |
Wellness, 2018 |
|
Vet visit fee |
$45 - $55 |
Wellness, 2018 |
|
Fecal test |
25 - $45 |
Wellness, 2018 |
|
Food and water bowls |
$10 - $40 |
|
|
Leash and collar/harness |
$15 - $40 |
|
|
Beds |
$10 - $230 |
|
|
Crate |
$15 - $150 |
|
|
Toys |
$48 |
APPA, 2020 |
|
Coats |
$10 - $50 |
|
|
Puppy or obedience course |
$150 - $300+ |
|
|
|
|
|
Estimated Total: |
|
|
|
|
Recurring Expenses |
Typical Range or Average Per Year |
Source |
Your Estimate |
Food |
$120 - $900 |
Reisen, 2017 |
|
Treats |
$76 |
APPA, 2020 |
|
Replacing toys or other supplies |
$35 - $250 |
Reisen, 2017 |
|
Dog license |
$10 (spayed or neutered) - $100 (breeding animal) |
|
|
Annual vet visits (could include dental cleaning, vaccine boosters, and preventative care) |
$212 |
APPA, 2020 |
|
Supplements or vitamins |
$58 |
APPA, 2020 |
|
Dog walker |
$0 - $4,000 (daily walks) |
Rover.com |
|
Pet sitter or boarding |
$229 |
APPA, 2020 |
|
Training |
$150 - $350+ |
|
|
Grooming supplies or grooming service |
$25 - $1400 |
Reisen, 2017 |
|
Insurance |
$420 |
Perrin, 2009 |
|
|
|
|
Estimated Total: |
With proper planning and preventative care, you can help keep expenses down when caring for your dog. For instance, buying some products in bulk such as food or treats can help save you money. Some delivery services offer a discount if you subscribe to recurring deliveries. This makes a lot of sense for purchasing dog food, treats, or poop bags that you must repurchase often. Visiting your vet at the first sign of a potential health problem can help save on costs in the long run by detecting illness or disease early on. Preventative treatments such as heart worm medication and flea and tick products can save money by avoiding costly treatments from an infection. Consider purchasing higher quality products for your pet that are more likely to hold up to wear and tear to avoid having to replace them as often. Finally, if possible, consider forming good relationships with your neighbors that also own dogs to take turns pet sitting or dog walking. Sharing these tasks can dramatically reduce expenses.
Most would agree that the monetary cost of having a dog is definitely worth it. By being prepared for the initial cost and having a good understanding of the recurring costs, you can ensure that you have the means to provide your dog with a high quality of life. Additionally, you can save yourself some stress in emergency situations by having insurance or having savings set aside. Hopefully, this article helped you get a better understanding of the cost of dog ownership and made you more aware of the unexpected expenses that may come up along the way.
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
Works Cited
American Pet Products Association. (2016). 2015–2016 APPA national pet owners survey. Greenwich, CT: American Pet Products Association.
American Pet Products Association. (2020). 2019–2020 APPA national pet owners survey. Greenwich, CT: American Pet Products Association.
American Veterinary Medical Association. (2020). 2017-2018 US pet ownership & demographics sourcebook.
Book Dog Boarding, Dog Walking and More. (n.d.). Retrieved December 29, 2020.
Donovan, L. (2017). Dogs, Not Marriage or Kids, Motivate Millennials to Buy Homes. Retrieved December 27, 2020
Holmstrom, S. E., Bellows, J., Juriga, S., Knutson, K., Niemiec, B. A., & Perrone, J. (2013). 2013 AAHA dental care guidelines for dogs and cats. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association, 49(2), 75-82.
How Much Will a Vet Visit Cost? (2018, September 20). Retrieved December 29, 2020.
Howell, T. J., King, T., & Bennett, P. C. (2015). Puppy parties and beyond: the role of early age socialization practices on adult dog behavior. Veterinary Medicine: Research and Reports, 6, 143.
Lord, L. K., Wittum, T. E., Ferketich, A. K., Funk, J. A., & Rajala-Schultz, P. J. (2007). Search and identification methods that owners use to find a lost dog. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 230(2), 211-216.
PDSA. (2017). PDSA Animal Wellbeing (PAW) Report.
Perrin, T. (2009). The business of urban animals survey: the facts and statistics on companion animals in Canada. The Canadian Veterinary Journal, 50(1), 48.
Reisen, J. (2017, October 18). How Much Will You Spend on Your Dog in His Lifetime? Retrieved December 27, 2020.
Storer, P. (2012). Boarding Your Dog: How to Make Your Dog's Stay Happy, Comfortable, and Safe: Storey's Country Wisdom Bulletin A-268. Storey Publishing.
The True Costs Of Owning A Pet. (2011). Retrieved December 29, 2020.
Yancey, S. (2015). Report 0105. Can Microchip Insertion by Shelters Solve Dog Overpopulation in Shelters?.
]]>There are few things in the world more joyful than a puppy, unless it’s a whole litter of puppies! Even though dogs have been having those litters of puppies without the aid of humans for many, many years, if your dog is bred or you’re thinking about having her bred, then there are some important things for you to know that could help her.
The heat, or estrous, cycle consists of four phases each characterized by different hormonal, behavioral, and physiological changes. This cycle preps the body for a potential pregnancy, supports that pregnancy if applicable, and then clears things out to get ready for the next one. Now, for a little more on the heat cycle of a dog:
Female pups will have their first heat when they reach puberty. When this happens depends on a dog’s size and breed, and to some extent the time of year (we’ll get more into that later). As a general rule, this is around six months of age. Smaller breeds tend to start younger, and some large breeds might not have their first heat until they’re 18 months old.
Dogs don’t go through a typical menopause like humans do. Rather, they stay fertile their entire life. That means your 16-year-old best friend can still have a litter of puppies. However, as a female dog ages, her heat cycles tend to become fewer and further in between, instead of the set twice a year that younger dogs are used to.
Most females will go into heat twice a year. There’s no real set timing for this, but most dogs follow a spring and fall schedule. Some breeds, such as Basenjis, only cycle in the spring, (this brings us back to the time of year comment from above) and some smaller breeds will cycle three times a year while larger breeds may only go into heat once per year. Young pups will be more irregular than those seasoned females as it may take a few years for them to hit their regularity stride.
A dog will stay in heat, or be receptive to a male and able to become pregnant, for about 1.5 to 2 weeks. It varies for each individual pup and can last as long as three weeks.
The four stage of estrous are: proestrus, estrus, diestrus, and anestrus.
Proestrus is when the body is preparing for heat. Follicles are developing, estrogen is increasing and males are starting to get interested.
Estrus is the “true heat” stage when a female is receptive to a male and when ovulation of the eggs occurs. Estrogen decreases and progesterone increases.
Diestrus is the two-month period following estrus when the female no longer wants anything to do with the male and progesterone peaks and then starts to decline. This phase is basically the same hormonally regardless of whether a dog is pregnant or not.
Anestrus is the period after diestrus until proestrus begins again. It can last as little as four months or longer for those large breed dogs. This is the time when there is not a lot going on except the uterus is regrouping and preparing for the next go-around.
Pregnancy in dogs lasts about nine weeks, or 63 days. As with any gestation length, there is going to be variability between each pup, and it may be shorter or longer. An interesting note is that the diestrus phase is the same length and hormonal profile as a pregnancy, causing some dogs to have a ‘false pregnancy’ when their body thinks that they are pregnant even though they aren’t. Some dogs will go through a nesting phase, treating their toys, your socks, or other pets as their puppies and some will even go as far as to produce milk.
Early on in the pregnancy, your dog is going to be pretty secretive and not show many outward signs. Some dogs may experience a little nausea due to hormonal changes and may not eat as much or even vomit a little. Some dogs may be a little more tired than usual.
As the pregnancy progresses, she will start to put on weight and may have an increased appetite. Your vet will be able to find puppies on an ultrasound at about three weeks into the pregnancy. By the fourth week, you will be able to feel the puppies palpating inside your dog’s belly.
At around six weeks along, you may start to notice nipple enlargement and even some milky discharge from them. Her tummy should be pretty noticeable by now as well. Six to seven weeks of gestation is when an x-ray can be done to evaluate the puppies’ bony structure and head sizes, which is especially important in small, brachycephalic breeds.
The last two weeks will show more belly growth and you may even be able to see the puppies move when your dog is resting. The mammary glands should fill as well and the momma-to-be will probably be pretty uncomfortable and restless.
Fortunately, your dog is going to do most of the work when it comes to her pregnancy. However, there are some areas where you can help. First of all, make sure she is eating a high-quality dog food. For recommendations on this, speak with your vet. For the early part of pregnancy, you won’t really need to adjust the feeding amounts unless your vet recommends it based on your dog’s weight and weight gain. When she gets into the final four to five weeks, you can gradually start to increase her food until she’s eating about 1.5 times her normal food intake. Again, this may be different due to recommendations from your vet based on her weight gain.
See your veterinarian throughout the pregnancy. Just like a pregnant woman should have regular prenatal appointments, pregnant dogs should as well. This will help your vet keep track of your dog’s weight, keep tabs on the size of the puppies and help you prepare for whelping.
You should also try to keep her stress to a minimum. If she’s a working dog, give her some time off. Make sure she has a comfortable bed and a safe space where she can go and relax without distractions. You may also give her separate feeding times if you have other dogs that make mealtime a rush job.
A rough average is five to six puppies per litter. How many puppies your dog ends up with will depend a lot on her breed and if she’s been through this before. In general, smaller breeds have fewer puppies per litter simply because their belly run out of room. Larger breeds tend to have more puppies. Younger females, especially if it’s their first litter, may have fewer puppies than they do in later litters down the road. It’s not really uncommon for a Yorkie to have a single and a Lab to have 11!
Once the puppies arrive, it’s not uncommon for your girl to be a little off for a day or two. Her appetite may be variable and she may be reluctant to leave those new babies. Some dogs will go right back to normal. Nursing puppies take a lot out of a mother, so feed her all she wants to eat, preferably a higher calorie food, such as a puppy formula. You may also add some canned food in there to boost her water intake and make sure there is always clean water available.
There will also be some vaginal discharge that may be blood tinged or even a dark greenish color for a couple of weeks. Just make sure that it doesn’t have a foul odor or a lot of fresh blood. You should also check her mammary glands every day for extra firmness, lumpiness, pain, or heat as these could all be signs of mastitis.
As for the little ones, make sure that each puppy eats every day, multiple times. The smaller puppies may have a harder time getting their fill, especially if it’s a large litter so pay special attention to them. You can use a small food scale to weigh each one to make sure they are gaining weight. You’ll also want to check the umbilical cords as some mommas can get a little aggressive and nibble them too close to the body.
If you need to have your puppies’ dewclaws removed or tail docked, please discuss the procedures with your veterinarian during that first week. Even if you don’t need these procedures performed, you should see your vet in the first week to make sure everything is okay.
So, we’ve talked a lot about pregnancy and puppies in this article, but the question you should be asking yourself is if your dog should be pregnant in the first place. Puppies are great, but not every dog should have them. There are a lot of unwanted dogs out there, more than there should be. This is due to accidental breeding and unwanted litters. Spaying and neutering are great ways to prevent your dog from having unwanted puppies, and it also helps keep the stray and homeless dog population down.
Unwanted puppies aside, spaying and neutering is also important from a medical standpoint. Neutering completely removes the possibility of a male getting testicular cancer and prostate problems later on in life. Spaying makes uterine infections nonexistent and drastically decreases the possibility of mammary cancer.
On the behavioral side, removing the reproductive organs also removes the reproductive hormones that make a dog wander and cause male dog aggression. It also stops the biannual heat cycles that brings all of the neighborhood males to your doorstep.
One final note: there has been a lot of research lately about the possible benefits of delaying spaying and neutering until after puberty. This may decrease the likelihood of ligament injuries and some forms of cancer down the road. Always speak with your veterinarian about when it’s best to have your dog spayed or neutered.
If you have an expectant mother or are thinking about having your dog bred, speak with your veterinarian first. They will be able to help you decide if having puppies is right for your dog and when and how you should go about it. They will also be there to help make sure your dog has the healthiest pregnancy that they can.
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
]]>The dog is man’s best friend and as a best friend they’re supposed to exhibit certain characteristics, such as loyalty, companionship, and affection. All good things, right? But in some instances, these qualities can get a little overwhelming. Especially when they seem to never leave your side, follow you everywhere, and never give you a moment’s break. Sometimes even best friends need a little time apart.
Your dog may follow you because they imprinted on you in puppyhood, due to their pack mentality, out of separation anxiety or companionship, because they need something from you, or because you’re knowingly or unknowingly reinforcing it.
Most of the time, having a dog follow you is welcomed but not all of the time. There are times you may want to do something about it. Regardless of how you feel about your dog following you everywhere, let’s dig deeper into the reasons why so that you can better understand your dog’s actions and how to correct them if necessary.
Puppies look to their mother to teach them the ways of the world such as where to get food, what to bark out, where to find safety, etc. The time of imprinting is between three and 12 weeks of age, even up to six months. During this time, a puppy may look for that positive role model or mother figure in you and following you around is how they learn from you.
In the wild, most dogs are part of a pack. The pack supports each other in finding food, water, shelter, and safety. They protect each other, play together, and share their meals. With domesticated dogs, their pack becomes you. Following you around is no different than a wolf following another group of wolves around hunting, socializing, or playing.
This is similar to the pack mentality. Dogs are social animals and want to be around others. In the absence of a pack of familiar dogs, you become their main companion and the one that they want to spend their time with.
You may or may not realize it, but you may be contributing to your dog’s desire to be close to you. Think about it, you turn around, tripping on your dog and what do you do? Pet them, talk to them, or give them a treat. It doesn’t take long for your pup to learn that being as close to you as possible is how they get noticed and attention.
Some working and herding type breeds are more likely to stay glued to your side. That’s because they have evolved working side-by-side with people. Sticking by you and following you around is no different than working closely with a co-worker. They’re there to help when you need them to get the job done.
There are a couple of reasons why your dog follows you around that may need some closer attention.
Separation anxiety can develop into a serious problem for both dogs and their owners. It occurs when dogs get anxious or nervous when their people family are away, sometimes to the point that they are destructive to themselves or objects.
Following you around may be your dog’s way of trying to tell you that they are in pain, not feeling well, scared, stressed, not getting enough to eat, you name it. It’s fair to think that being around you as much as possible might help them get their message across.
A dog’s genetic makeup absolutely can have an effect on whether they follow you around or not. Herding dogs, such as Border Collies, Australian Shepherds, or Kelpies; or working dogs, like Labs and Golden Retrievers, were bred for their loyalty to their owner. People wanted to have these dogs close by should they need them for work. The more a dog wanted to follow their owner, the more sought after they were. Think about it, if the cows get out, you don’t want to have to go find your dog to help get them back in. You want a dog that is already right there with you to help get the job done more quickly.
Even though some of these breeds are popular now as pets and may not ‘work’ a day in their life, they haven’t lost that instinct to stick with their owners.
Since some breeds have been genetically designed to want to follow their owners around, it may lead some to wonder what happens when this goes a little too far. First, it’s important to note that there is a difference between a dog that sticks to their owner unconditionally and one that has separation anxiety, even though it may sometimes be hard to tell.
With dogs that have an extremely high loyalty trait, they want to be with their owners as much as possible. They feel that urge to help them, protect them, and not miss an opportunity when they could be useful. However, when the times comes to be apart from their person, they’re okay with it. They understand that everyone needs a little down time and are able to be separate comfortably and be relaxed.
With separation anxiety, a dog also feels the urge for a 24/7 connection. However, the difference is apparent when the time comes to be apart. They get very nervous, anxious, uncomfortable, and are not okay with separation. Some may become destructive and take out their anxiety and frustrations on the furniture, carpets, other pets, or even themselves. If untreated, separation anxiety can lead to some serious mental and physical issues in a pup that may take some intensive training and/or medication to resolve.
This may seem like a crazy question. After all, isn’t companionship one of the main reasons that we have dogs in the first place? The problem is that sometimes that constant connection can put you or your dog in danger. We already talked about the issues that can arise when a dog develops separation anxiety, but there may be other complications as well.
Dogs can become overly protective of you and bite others that need to come near you, like your family or co-workers. Or your dog may follow you somewhere that isn’t safe such as swimming after you when you take a boat out into a lake or river. While we all enjoy the company of our best friend, we all need our space. Teaching your dog to appreciate theirs will help you avoid these and other potentially bad situations.
Take little breaks from your dog. If separation anxiety is an issue, you may need to safely confine them somewhere where they can see or hear you but can’t be near you. Then start to incorporate short periods when they can’t see or hear you. Always make sure you come back and give them attention if they reacted well. Increase the length of time that you’re away from your dog until they can comfortably handle longer periods of alone time.
If your dog’s excessive following has come on suddenly, see your vet to help determine if there’s a medical or behavioral cause. They can help rule out pain or illness and help get you different training tools if it’s simply behavioral. In severe cases of separation anxiety, your veterinarian will be able to prescribe, hopefully temporary, medications to help reduce your dog’s nervousness so that you can get a handle on training to help them.
If you’ve been rewarding your dog for being underfoot, it’s time to stop. Rather than patting their head when you trip over them, act like they’re not there instead. Only give them attention when they appropriately follow you or after they’ve kept their distance for a designated period of time.
Never forget about dog behavior experts. It’s amazing what these people can do with our furry friends. Not only can a professional help get to the root of your dog’s following behavior, but they can give you helpful tips and tricks that will help cut it down to a healthy amount.
You may think that having a dog that follows you everywhere is what you’re looking for, and there’s many reasons why one will. But it may be time to think again. We all need our space sometimes and teaching your dog to appreciate theirs can help reduce agitation and possibly serious complications in the long run.
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
]]>Dogs are such an important part of our lives and so in tuned with humans that we may sometimes forget that they are an entirely different species that evolved for a different lifestyle than ours. This includes how they navigate and sense the world around them. Our senses help us receive information from the environment and prepare for the appropriate response. Dogs evolved to be active at dawn and dusk, or at night, and therefore have senses that help them navigate their environment in low levels of light (Byosiere et al., 2018). Part of this adaptation is having whiskers. In this article, we will discuss the science behind dog whiskers and how they help your dog sense the world around them.
Like humans, dogs have five main senses: sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch. Whiskers are a key element of a dog’s sense of touch. However, some may argue that whiskers could make up a sixth sense, one that humans do not have. Whiskers are important for special navigation, especially in low light environments.
Whiskers are also known as vibrissae and are found on almost all mammal species. Vibrissae is derived from the Latin word meaning “to vibrate.” Whiskers are a specialized hair with nerve endings that allows the whiskers to take in information from the environment and send that information to the brain (Coren, 2016). Whiskers are sensitive enough to allow animals to “see” their environment in the dark. Whiskers also detect air flow, allowing animals to find objects around them before they physically touch them (Buzhardt, 2015). Whiskers are important for a variety of other functions such as communication between members of the same species, hunting prey animals, defensive behavior, pheromone signaling, and swimming (Ahl, 1986).
Yes, all dogs have whiskers. They are an important feature for many mammal species. However, there may be breed differences in whiskers based on the breed’s purpose. There is evidence that whisker length is different across species based on the ecology of that animal (McGill, 1980). For example, some breeds were used for hunting in rodent tunnels. These dogs would need to be able to run through small spaces with little to no light. These dogs may need shorter, stronger whiskers than dogs used to herd sheep in open fields during day light. In other species, burrowing animals such as mice have shorter whiskers than hunters like cats (McGill, 1980). Humans are one of the mammal species without whiskers, which means we will never know the sensation of having them and using them to navigate. Other mammals that do not have whiskers include platypus, echidna, and some hairless breeds, like the Sphinx cat.
Dog whiskers are located on their face: above their eyes, on their upper lips, and on their chin. The whiskers are located in these areas to help dogs with spatial navigation since dogs move forward with their face. These whisker locations are especially helpful when dogs navigate under low light conditions.
Some mammals, like cats and squirrels, have whiskers on the back of their legs. These whiskers help them as they crawl through small spaces or climb up trees. Dogs do not have whiskers on their legs.
Whiskers are a type of hair. Therefore, whiskers are made of keratin. Keratin is a protein that also makes up hair, nails, and even rhino horns! While whiskers are a hair, they are specialized hairs, meaning they are much thicker than normal fur on the rest of the dog’s body. Whiskers also have blood vessels and nerve endings connected to them. Each whisker has 100-200 nerve endings attached to the follicle and its own blood supply. The structure of whiskers is thought to be the same across species (Rice et al., 1986).
Puppies are born with their eyes and ears closed, but they are born with whiskers. Their whiskers help them navigate their environment before their sight and hearing are developed. In rats, whiskers help pups find their way to their mother for nursing, especially their first nursing after they are born (McGill, 1980). This is likely an important part of whiskers on dog pups as well, playing an important role in bonding between a puppy and its mother and littermates (Buzhardt, 2015).
Since whiskers contain nerve endings, they are highly sensitive structures. Some dogs may experience higher levels of sensitivity in their whiskers, leading to discomfort. This may cause anxiety, especially around eating and drinking with certain bowls. If your dog is reluctant to eat out of their bowl, or does strange behaviors around feeding and drinking, you may want to question whether or not your dog is experiencing whisker sensitivity. Some dogs with whisker sensitivity may also become hand shy, where they recoil from someone reaching out to pet them. These dogs may also find head halters uncomfortable. This may lead to aggression if the dog’s discomfort is not addressed (Coren, 2016).
If you suspect your dog has whisker sensitivity, provide your dog wide, shallow bowls to eat and drink out of. Be mindful of where and how you pet your dog. Focus petting mainly on the neck and back, if your dog allows. Encourage strangers to do the same and actively avoid letting people reach for your dog’s head during petting. This is especially important during interactions with children. Children do not always understand safe ways of interacting with dogs. Children should never be allowed to pull at or cut dog whiskers. Another step you can take to keep your dog comfortable is to walk your dog on a back-clip harness. This will help keep the leash away from their face.
Due to the number of nerve endings in the whisker, you should not attempt to pluck the whiskers. Whisker trimming is a common grooming practice, especially for show dogs. Dog breeders think having the whiskers trimmed give the dog a cleaner look (McGill, 1980). Whiskers do grow back. But when you think about how sensitive whiskers are and how important they are to dogs, you may want to avoid having your dog’s whiskers trimmed. Doing so may cause some sensitivity or disorientation as your dog learns to re-navigate without them (McGill, 1980; Fernández-Montoya, 2018).
While there is no formal research on the emotional and physical response of whisker trimming in dogs, there is research on other species that suggests whisker trimming should not be a common practice (McHill, 1980; Fernández-Montoya, 2018). Most of the research done on whiskers in mammals has been conducted on laboratory rodents. Studies looking at whisker trimming in rats showed evidence that doing so affects their navigation skills. Rats with trimmed whiskers exhibited changes to locomotor activity and depth perception. Previous research has also shown that whisker trimming in cats reduces their overall activity (McGill, 1980). A more recent study on rats found that trimming whiskers can cause permanent changes to the nerves connected with the whiskers (Fernández-Montoya, 2018).
Yes, just like our hair and nails, whiskers do grow back. They naturally grow and shed off like the fur on your dog’s body or like the hairs on our head. It is fairly common for dog parents to find whiskers around the house. There is no reason to be alarmed if you find a whisker. Whiskers will continue to grow back for the life of the dog.
The goal of this article was to help dog parents learn a little more about how their dog navigates the world. Whiskers are an important part of a dog’s senses. They help dogs move through areas of low light and detect changes in the environment. Puppies are born with whiskers. They are their primary source of information for navigation until their eyes and ears open. Whiskers are located on a dog’s face, on the eyebrows, upper lips, and chin. Whiskers have nerve endings, which makes them highly sensitive. Some dogs may experience heightened whisker sensitivity which is exacerbated by food and water bowls, petting, and head halters. But, there are steps you can take to help your dog feel more comfortable.
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
Works Cited
Ahl, A.S. 1986. The role of vibrissae in behavior: a status review. Veterinary Research Communications 10:245-268.
Buzhardt, L. 2015. Why do dogs have whiskers? Veterinary Centers of America. Retrieved October 25, 2020.
Byosiere, S.-E., Chouinard, P.A., Howell, T.J., and P.C. Bennett. 2018. What do dogs (Canis familiaris) see? A review of vision in dogs and implications for cognition research. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 25(5):1798-1813.
Coren, S. 2016. Why do dogs have whiskers? American Kennel Club.
Fernández-Montoya, J., Martin, Y.B., Negredo, P., and C. Avendaño. 2018. Changes in the axon terminals of primary afferents from a single vibrissa in the rat trigeminal nuclei after active touch deprivation or exposure to an enrichment environment. Brain Structure and Function 223:47-61.
McGill, T.E. 1980. Amputation of vibrissae in show dogs. International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems 1(6).
Rice, F.L., Mance, A., and B.L. Munder. 1986. A comparative light microscopic analysis of the sensory innervation of the mystacial pad. I. Innervation of vibrissal follicle – sinus complexes. Journal of Comparation Neurology 252(2):154-174.
]]>The science of whether dogs have feelings has been long debated, with many scientists questioning whether an individual needs to be consciously aware in order to experience emotions. While modern day scientists are mostly in agreement that animals do experience emotions, the debate continues as to what emotions they are able to experience. In general, basic emotional states that are crucial for fitness and survival in nature, are believed to be experienced by animals, including dogs. People that have dogs as pets would probably argue that dogs are capable of more complex emotions. But does the science support this? This article will provide an overview about what we know about dog emotions, and what we still have left to learn.
Feelings are the conscious experience of emotional reactions. Since it is impossible to prove consciousness in humans, let alone dogs, many researchers focus on the study of emotions instead. Emotions are associated with physiological reactions that are activated through neurotransmitters and hormones released by the brain (Kujala, 2017). Dr. Frans de Waal, a well-respected biologist and primatologist, defines an emotion as:
“An emotion is a temporary state brought by biologically relevant external stimuli, whether aversive or attractive. The emotion is marked by specific changes in the organism’s body and mind – brain, hormones, muscles, viscera, heart, etc.” (de Waal, 2011).
The measure of an emotion can be expressed across two dimensions – arousal and valence. The arousal and valence of an emotional response are known as core effect (Mendl et al., 2010; de Vere & Kuczai, 2016). By examining the core affect, we can further understand the subjective experience of animal emotional responses. An animal’s arousal can be defined as the energy state associated with the emotion experienced. For instance, does the animal appear excited or depressed? Is the animal active or inactive? Valance refers to whether the experience is considered negative or positive. Animals perceive positive experiences as rewarding and pleasant, while negative experiences are perceived as unpleasant or punishing. Examples of high arousal and positive valence emotions, perceived as rewarding, include excited and happy. High arousal and negative valence emotions, perceived as punishing, include fearful and anxious. Relaxed and calm are examples of emotions with low arousal and positive valence, while sad and depressed are emotions with low arousal and negative valence.
Other emotions that have been studied and used to describe animals include (Bekoff, 2000; de Vere and Kuczai, 2016):
Feelings are subjective and are therefore difficult to study scientifically. Researchers therefore focus their efforts on the study of emotion, which can be measured by examining levels of hormones and regions present in the brain, among other physiological measures. By comparing hormones and brain regions present in humans with those present in dogs, we can infer whether or not the dog is capable of experiencing the same emotions. We can also examine how a dog’s behavior changes in different situations. Research has shown that dogs will behave differently according to the emotional situation, show emotionally driven expectations, experience affective disorders, and show some evidence of empathy (Kujala, 2017). Humans and dogs have shared brain structures, biochemistry, and behavior, suggesting that the also share emotional experiences (de Vere and Kuczai, 2016).
Dogs are believed to be mentally similar to a 2-year-old human. As humans age, they develop the ability to experience more complex emotions. Young humans experience excitement and arousal first. They then begin to develop emotions of distress, fear, anger, joy, suspicion, shyness, and love and affection over time. After 2 years of age, they begin to develop more complex emotional processing including shame, pride, guilt, and contempt. It is thought, by comparing brain structures and connections, that dogs are capable of experiencing these basic emotions present in humans early in life (Jensen, 2007; de Lahunta and Glass, 2009; Evans and de Lahunta, 2013).
Emotions of fear and anxiety are heavily researched in animals in many fields including evolutionary ecology, personality research, veterinary behavior, and neurobiology (Tiira et al., 2016). These emotions are among the most fundamental emotions required for animals to survive and cope in potentially dangerous situations and are believed to be experienced by dogs (Bateson, 2011; Hohoff, 2009). Another study has shown that jealousy is another emotion shared by dogs and human infants (Harris and Prouvost, 2014). Dogs in this study displayed jealous behaviors when their owners gave affection to another dog. An additional study explored whether dogs could feel more complex emotions such as guilt or shame. This study concluded that dogs did not experience these emotions, and that the behaviors displayed were really fear. The fear of being punished caused dogs to respond in a way that owners misinterpreted as guilt (Horowitz, 2010).
This may seem obvious to dog parents, but scientists agree that dogs do feel emotions towards their owners. In a study exploring empathy in dogs towards humans, dogs were shown to be empathetic towards crying humans (Custance and Mayer, 2012). In another study, similar brain sensitivity towards vocal cues of emotional valence were found in both dogs and humans (Andics et al., 2014). In other words, happy sounding voices lit up the same brain regions in dogs and humans, and shared regions were lit up in response to angry voices. By comparing brain regions and hormones (especially oxytocin) in dogs compared to humans, we can also conclude that dogs experience love and affection as well.
Humans seem to be best at detecting friendly and happy dog behavior, whereas we struggle a bit more in identifying aggression and fearful emotions (Tami and Gallagher, 2009; Wan et al., 2012, Mirkó et al., 2013; Lakestani et al., 2014). Children especially struggle with detecting fear or aggressive behaviors (Meints et al., 2010; Lakestani et al., 2014). Those individuals with prior experience with dog behavior and training are typically much better at reading dog emotions through body language cues (Kujala et al., 2012; Wan et al., 2012). This makes sense, as many emotions are expressed through subtle cues and require knowledge of what to look for. Facial expressions in dogs, on the other hand, are much more intuitive for humans to interpret. Humans, as a species, typically gain information about other’s emotions through facial expressions. We therefore are drawn more to our dog’s facial expressions and are better at interpreting their emotions through facial cues, irrespective of our formal training in dog behavior (Bloom and Friedman, 2013; Schirmer et al., 2013). Bloom and Friedman (2013) explored how well humans were able to distinguish certain emotions in photographs of dog’s faces. They found that humans were best at distinguishing basic emotions, but struggled to detect more discrete, complex emotions. The following are percentages of times people were able to correctly identify the following emotions:
In summary, dogs and humans have many brain regions and hormones in common. These shared physiological traits have led scientists to believe that dogs are capable of experiencing many of the same emotions that humans do. It is fairly clear that dogs are able to experience basic emotions, especially those that are advantageous for the survival of their species. These are the same emotions that human infants develop before 2 years of age. Whether or not dogs can experience more complex emotions is still up for debate.
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
Works Cited
Andics, A., Gácsi, M., Faragó, T., Kis, A., & Miklósi, Á. (2014). Voice-sensitive regions in the dog and human brain are revealed by comparative fMRI. Current Biology, 24(5), 574-578.
Bateson, M., Brilot, B., & Nettle, D. (2011). Anxiety: an evolutionary approach. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 56(12), 707-715.
Bekoff, M. (2000). Animal Emotions: Exploring Passionate Natures: Current interdisciplinary research provides compelling evidence that many animals experience such emotions as joy, fear, love, despair, and grief—we are not alone. BioScience, 50(10), 861-870.
Bloom, T., & Friedman, H. (2013). Classifying dogs’(Canis familiaris) facial expressions from photographs. Behavioural Processes, 96, 1-10.
Custance, D., & Mayer, J. (2012). Empathic-like responding by domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) to distress in humans: an exploratory study. Animal cognition, 15(5), 851-859.
De Lahunta, A., Glass, E. N., & Kent, M. (2014). Veterinary Neuroanatomy and Clinical Neurology-E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences.
de Vere, A. J., & Kuczaj, S. A. (2016). Where are we in the study of animal emotions?. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 7(5), 354-362.
De Waal, F. B. (2011). What is an animal emotion?. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1224(1), 191-206.
Evans, H. E., & De Lahunta, A. (2013). Miller's anatomy of the dog-E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences.
Harris, C. R., & Prouvost, C. (2014). Jealousy in dogs. PloS one, 9(7), e94597.
Hohoff, C. (2009). Anxiety in mice and men: a comparison. Journal of neural transmission, 116(6), 679-687.
Horowitz, A. (2010). Inside of a dog: What dogs see, smell, and know. Simon and Schuster.
Jensen, P. (2007). Mechanisms and function in dog behaviour. The Behavioural Biology of Dogs’.(Ed. P. Jensen.) pp, 61-75.
Kujala, M. V. (2017). Canine emotions as seen through human social cognition. Animal Sentience, 2(14), 1.
Kujala, M. V., Kujala, J., Carlson, S., & Hari, R. (2012). Dog experts' brains distinguish socially relevant body postures similarly in dogs and humans. PloS one, 7(6), e39145.
Lakestani, N. N., Donaldson, M. L., & Waran, N. (2014). Interpretation of dog behavior by children and young adults. Anthrozoös, 27(1), 65-80.
Meints, K., Racca, A., & Hickey, N. (2010). How to prevent dog bite injuries? Children misinterpret dogs’ facial expressions. Injury Prevention, 16(Suppl 1), A68-A68.
Mendl, M., Burman, O. H., & Paul, E. S. (2010). An integrative and functional framework for the study of animal emotion and mood. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 277(1696), 2895-2904.
Mirkó, E., Dóka, A., & Miklósi, Á. (2013). Association between subjective rating and behaviour coding and the role of experience in making video assessments on the personality of the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 149(1-4), 45-54.
Schirmer, A., Seow, C. S., & Penney, T. B. (2013). Humans process dog and human facial affect in similar ways. PLoS One, 8(9), e74591.
Tami, G., & Gallagher, A. (2009). Description of the behaviour of domestic dog (Canis familiaris) by experienced and inexperienced people. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 120(3-4), 159-169.
Tiira, K., Sulkama, S., & Lohi, H. (2016). Prevalence, comorbidity, and behavioral variation in canine anxiety. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 16, 36-44.
Wan, M., Bolger, N., & Champagne, F. A. (2012). Human perception of fear in dogs varies according to experience with dogs. PLoS one, 7(12), e51775.
]]>Dogs don’t use language to communicate, at least not in the traditional sense. Instead, they rely on sending visual, auditory, tactile, and olfactory messages to those around them. Dogs have evolved alongside humans for at least 30,000 years and have become exceptionally adapted at understanding human communication (Thalmann et al., 2013). However, the ability of humans to read a dog’s communication is not as innate, but with a little knowledge we can get a pretty good sense of what our dogs are ‘saying’ to each other and to us!
Dogs utilize a variety of communication signals to express their intent and emotional state. These signals can be grouped into four main categories: visual, auditory, tactile, and olfactory.
When communicating with humans, dogs will use many of the same communication signals that they use when communicating with other dogs. Since the behavior of dogs is extremely flexible and adaptable, they may alter their communication styles with humans to use signals that we understand best. Humans rely most heavily on their visual system and have weaker hearing and smelling ability compared to dogs. Therefore, dogs may find tactile or posture signals to be more effective than other cues that might work better towards members of their own species. One major difference between communication with other dogs and humans is the use of eye contact. Between dogs, eye contact is typically viewed as threatening. In humans though, dogs have adapted and will use eye contact in trusting and friendly contexts with people (Siniscalchi et al., 2018).
Evidence continues to show just how well dogs are at communicating with humans. They appear to be more skillful in using human forms of communication than wolves or even the chimpanzee (Kaminski and Nitzschner, 2013). Dogs are especially good at understanding where a human is looking or pointing as this often leads them towards the location of something rewarding (i.e. a treat or the ball they lost) (Topál et al., 2014). Research has shown that dogs may also use this understanding of attentional state to their advantage. In one study, dogs waited to steal a piece of food until they saw that humans were no longer watching (Call et al., 2003).
Dog communication with other dogs is fairly universal. The tiniest Chihuahua may bow towards their friends when they want to play, just as a Great Dane will. A German Shephard will growl and snarl when feeling threatened just as a toy poodle will. While these instinctual communication behaviors exist across breeds, physical characteristics of certain breeds can hinder their ability to be understood. Dogs with super long or fluffy coats may hide their body posture or facial features, making it difficult for dogs to read them (Bradshaw and Wickens, 1992). Additionally, it may be common for some breeds to have physical modifications performed on them such as ear cropping or tail docking which can significantly impact their ability to communicate with other dogs (Sinmez et al., 2017). Dog’s may be able to adapt to these physical differences, however caution should be used when meeting new dogs that may feel uncomfortable around dogs that they struggle to communicate with.
History suggests that dogs and cats are able to communicate with one another. They do so through different body movements, growls, and even facial expressions. While their communication signals may not line up exactly with one another, they are typically pretty decent at getting their general point across. Since dogs are skilled at interpreting behavior, they are likely to make associations about the communication signals of cats through learning over time. For instance, dogs may learn that a hiss is often followed by a swat with a paw, and will learn to leave a hissing cat alone. Due to the dog’s unique ability to learn and adapt, they can often live harmoniously in households with other cats and even other species of pets (Feuerstein and Terkel, 2008). In addition, since both dogs and cats use olfactory signals in communication, it is likely that dogs can pick up different scent signals left by a cat.
When our pet dogs communicate with us, it is usually on friendly terms. They either want to play, be fed, go outside for a walk, or want to show us their affection. In cases where your dog is trying to play or show you affection, you can respond back by mimicking their behaviors. A great example of this is to play bow towards your playful dog. In most cases, they will bow back with excitement and engage in other play behaviors (Rooney et al., 2001).
If you happen to encounter a not-so-friendly dog, there are communication signals referred to as “calming signals” that can help de-escalate an aggressive situation (Mariti et al., 2017). By turning your head or body away from the dog and by avoiding eye contact, you can indicate that you are not a threat. Additional behaviors that can help calm an anxious or aggressive dog include making yourself appear smaller or yawn. Yawning is often used for appeasement.
Research is ongoing into how well dogs can understand humans. As mentioned in this article, dogs can understand human pointing gestures and are aware of where people are looking. Other research has shown that dogs can read our facial expression (Somppi et al., 2014) and are empathetic towards our emotional state (Custance and Mayer, 2012). Anyone that has lived with a dog can tell you that dogs pick up on our verbal language too. In most households with dogs, the second you mention going on a walk, your dog will perk right up. It’s clear that dogs pick up on a number of other words too through associative learning.
Communication in dogs involves their whole bodies – their posture, fur, facial expressions, vocalizations, and pheromones all work together to express their intent and emotional state. Dogs are adaptable creatures that have learned how to communicate effectively with the people and animals in which they share their homes with. As dog lovers, taking the time to learn dog communication signals can help us become more attentive pet parents and can improve the relationship we have with the dogs in our life.
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
Works Cited
Artelle, K. A., Dumoulin, L. K., & Reimchen, T. E. (2011). Behavioural responses of dogs to asymmetrical tail wagging of a robotic dog replica. Laterality, 16(2), 129-135.
Bradshaw, J. W., & Wickens, S. M. (1992). Social behaviour of the domestic dog. Tijdschrift voor diergeneeskunde, 117, 50S.
Call, J., Bräuer, J., Kaminski, J., & Tomasello, M. (2003). Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) are sensitive to the attentional state of humans. Journal of comparative psychology, 117(3), 257.
Custance, D., & Mayer, J. (2012). Empathic-like responding by domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) to distress in humans: an exploratory study. Animal cognition, 15(5), 851-859.
Feuerstein, N. L., & Terkel, J. (2008). Interrelationships of dogs (Canis familiaris) and cats (Felis catus L.) living under the same roof. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 113(1-3), 150-165.
Kaminski, J., & Nitzschner, M. (2013). Do dogs get the point? A review of dog–human communication ability. Learning and Motivation, 44(4), 294-302.
Mariti, C., Falaschi, C., Zilocchi, M., Fatjó, J., Sighieri, C., Ogi, A., & Gazzano, A. (2017). Analysis of the intraspecific visual communication in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris): A pilot study on the case of calming signals. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 18, 49-55.
Rooney, N. J., Bradshaw, J. W., & Robinson, I. H. (2001). Do dogs respond to play signals given by humans?. Animal Behaviour, 61(4), 715-722.
Siniscalchi, M., d’Ingeo, S., Minunno, M., & Quaranta, A. (2018). Communication in dogs. Animals, 8(8), 131.
Sinmez, C. C., Yigit, A., & Aslim, G. (2017). Tail docking and ear cropping in dogs: a short review of laws and welfare aspects in the Europe and Turkey. Italian Journal of Animal Science, 16(3), 431-437.
Somppi, S., Törnqvist, H., Hänninen, L., Krause, C. M., & Vainio, O. (2014). How dogs scan familiar and inverted faces: an eye movement study. Animal Cognition, 17(3), 793-803.
Thalmann, O., Shapiro, B., Cui, P., Schuenemann, V. J., Sawyer, S. K., Greenfield, D. L., ... & Napierala, H. (2013). Complete mitochondrial genomes of ancient canids suggest a European origin of domestic dogs. Science, 342(6160), 871-874.
Topál, J., Kis, A., & Oláh, K. (2014). Dogs’ sensitivity to human ostensive cues: a unique adaptation?. In The Social Dog (pp. 319-346). Academic Press.
]]>To many of us, our pet dogs are like family. If they go missing, it can be a heart wrenching and traumatic experience for all members of the family. The uncertainty of not knowing where our pet is and if they are safe can lead to sleepless nights and exhaustion. Thankfully, in most cases dogs are reunited with their families in the end. The following article will discuss steps that you can take to increase the likelihood of your dog returning home safely to you if they get lost, and how to reduce the chances of it happening in the first place.
Dogs can go missing for a number of reasons. They may slip out the door as you’re bringing groceries inside, they may dig out of your fenced yard, they may slip out of their collar on you walk, or there are hundreds of other situations that may arise leading to our dog escaping our care. If your dog does end up missing, first and foremost try not to panic. Dogs are highly likely to be reunited with their owners. One study found that of dogs that went missing, 71% were recovered and most were retuned within 2 days (Lord et al., 2007a). Pet owners from this study recovered their dogs by contacting animal shelters (34.8%), through having their information on a dog license tag (18.2%), or by posting signs throughout their neighborhood (15.2%) (Lord et al., 2007a). Another study found an even greater recovery percent of 93%. Owners in this study reported finding their dog by searching their neighborhood, having the dog return on their own, or through information being available on an identification tag (Weiss et al., 2012). Dogs whose owner information was in a shelter database registry or a microchip registry had the greatest likelihood that their owners would be found (Lord et al., 2009). Owners that were least likely to find their lost dogs were the ones that suspected their dog had been stolen (Lord et al., 2007a).
Posting signs around your neighborhood and local newspapers is a great place to start. However, with the popularity of social media and an increasing number of people embracing new technology, advertising your dog using online platforms can help you reach a larger audience. When dogs go missing, there is a chance that they will never leave your neighborhood. However, there is also that chance that an excitable or nervous dog may travel incredibly far distances. This makes it critical to advertise your lost dog locally as well as in surrounding communities. Facebook is a great place to post your missing dog information. Places like your neighborhood page and community groups are good places to start. Make sure your post is set to public so it can be shared and seen widely! Other neighborhood webpages such as nextdoor are options to share within and between communities. Another place to potentially advertise a missing dog is through special phone applications that have been developed for this purpose. Some of these apps serve as databases to store information about pets within neighborhoods to help facilitate bringing them home (Chutichudet et al., 2014). Other scientists have even been exploring the use of facial recognition to help link lost pets with information in databases with high accuracy (Moreira et al., 2017).
No matter where you choose to advertise your lost dog, the following information should be included:
It is not necessary to offer a reward for locating and returning your dog, and is even discouraged by some professionals. Most people (87%) that come across a lost dog consider it extremely important to find the owner and will do so because it is the right thing to do (Lord et al., 2007b). While offering a reward may motivate people to get out and search for your dog, it could open you up to potential scammers, cause harm to your pet as people prioritize catching the dog over their safety (e.g. chasing the dog into traffic or interfering with passive ways to safely capture the dog), or could inadvertently contribute to people stealing pets in order to claim reward money. Even if a reward is offered, most people will decline it. It is recommended, though, to offer to reimburse the finder for any expenses associated with finding your dog such as food costs or any vet bills. If you do choose to offer a reward it is recommended to not disclose the amount on the flyer.
There are preventive measures that dog parents can take to prevent their dog from escaping and running away. These include:
Finally, there are measures you can take to help bring your lost dog home quicker. These include keeping identification on their collar (this could include an identification tag, dog license tag, or a rabies tag) or microchipping your dog.
Collars with identification tags are great, but only work if your dog is wearing them. Owners may not be consistent in keeping a collar on their dog, or the collar may get caught and fall off, rendering them useless in linking you to your lost dog. Microchips on the other hand will always be there. A study examining how reliable microchips are tested dogs 6 months after receiving a chip and found that 99.8% were still functional (Lord et al., 2010). In another study, researchers found that mandatory microchipping of dogs resulted in increased reunification of dogs with their owners, decreased length of stay at a shelter, and saved the city money (Zak et al., 2018). A major caveat of microchips is that the information in the database must be updated whenever an animal moves to a new home or if the owner’s phone number changes (Lord et al., 2009). Moving is a high-risk event for losing a dog, so owners should be proactive and keep this information up to date in the database.
If you come across a dog that appears lost, try to capture the dog. Keep in mind that dogs that are lost may be extra fearful, and they are more likely to run off or even act out aggressively if they feel threatened. Use of calming signals (Cohen, 2007) can help keep the dog calm and more able to be captured. Try to keep yourself as non-threatening as possible by keeping a low posture, avoiding direct eye contact, and turning your body at an angle from the dog. Use a high value food item to lure the dog towards you. Avoid calling out to the dog or slapping your leg. Take your time to gain the dog’s trust. Use of a human trap, animal carrier, or a car can help safely capture a dog. If a dog is too nervous to be captured, do not approach or attempt to chase down the dog. Try to get a photo instead.
If you are successful at capturing a lost dog, check if they have any tags with contact information. If they do, try to reach the owner. If not, take the dog to an animal shelter or veterinarian to have them scanned for a microchip. Meanwhile, you can browse missing pet pages on social media or the newspaper to see if there is a missing dog matching their description. Sometimes, newspapers will allow found-pet advertisements at no charge (Lord et al., 2007b).
In conclusion, having a plan in place in case your dog ever goes missing is the best course of action. Make sure your dog is micro-chipped or wearing an identification on their collar. Add your pet to any local databases of pets. If your dog does go missing, spread the word through local fliers, social media posts, newspaper ads, or even the radio. Explore if your community supports any cell phone apps or websites dedicated to reuniting lost pets. Finally, while it’s a nerve wracking experience, try to remember that the chances of your dog’s safe return are high!
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
Works Cited
Chutichudet, S., Kanthathasiri, T., Ritsakunchai, I., & Wongsawang, D. (2014, March). LFD: Lost and Found Dog application on mobile. In 2014 Third ICT International Student Project Conference (ICT-ISPC) (pp. 147-150). IEEE.
Cohen, H. Y. (2007). Calming signals. Veterinary Nursing Journal, 22(7), 26-28.
Lord, L. K., Griffin, B., Slater, M. R., & Levy, J. K. (2010). Evaluation of collars and microchips for visual and permanent identification of pet cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 237(4), 387-394.
Lord, L. K., Ingwersen, W., Gray, J. L., & Wintz, D. J. (2009). Characterization of animals with microchips entering animal shelters. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 235(2), 160-167.
Lord, L. K., Wittum, T. E., Ferketich, A. K., Funk, J. A., & Rajala-Schultz, P. J. (2007a). Search and identification methods that owners use to find a lost dog. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 230(2), 211-216.
Lord, L. K., Wittum, T. E., Ferketich, A. K., Funk, J. A., & Rajala-Schultz, P. J. (2007b). Search methods that people use to find owners of lost pets. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 230(12), 1835-1840.
Weiss, E., Slater, M., & Lord, L. (2012). Frequency of lost dogs and cats in the United States and the methods used to locate them. Animals, 2(2), 301-315.
Zak, J., Voslarova, E., Vecerek, V., & Bedanova, I. (2018). Impact of mandatory microchipping on traceability of sheltered dogs in the Czech Republic. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 21(2), 108-119.
]]>We rely on reading our dog’s facial expressions to figure out what they’re trying to say to us and to judge how they’re feeling. Underlying muscle structures responsible for facial expressions are highly conserved among mammals (Diogo et al., 2009). It’s reasonable then to question whether the same cognitive processes underlie facial expressions as well. We know some facial expressions have the same meaning between dogs and humans, for instance, in both species a “grimace” can indicate feeling pain, whereas soft eyes and a gentle smile can indicate contentment. Interpreting what a “wink” means in dog facial language is a bit more difficult. Even among human societies, the meaning of a wink can vary widely. In some cultures, a wink may suggest sexual intent. While in others, it may be used to share an inside secret or joke, and in some, it may be perceived as incredibly offensive or rude.
Researchers studying facial expressions in dogs have come to a few conclusions as to what winking likely means. The following are possible explanations for why a dog is winking:
Yes, winking can absolutely be used as a form of communication. Dogs will use winking with other dogs to negotiate potentially aggressive interactions. In dogs, direct eye contact is used to signal dominance or aggression. Dogs will therefore blink or wink an eye to break eye contact to indicate that they are friendly and do not wish to harm the other dog. This blink or wink may also be followed by the dog turning their head away (Aloff, 2018). Direct eye contact or staring from a human may also cause a dog to look away or to quickly wink/blink. In this case, the dog is signaling submission and that they are not a threat to us. Other signs to look for that a dog is non-threatening include a lack of body tension, relaxed ears, a slightly open mouth, and loose lips (Aloff, 2018).
Historically, facial expressions of animals have been thought to be involuntary and inflexible displays of their emotional states. However, as research and scientific knowledge has advanced, there has been evidence suggesting that dogs can change their facial expressions on purpose as a way to communicate with other dogs and humans (Kaminski et al., 2017). In addition to being a communication tool, winking may be used to build social bonds through mimicry. Dogs will naturally adapt their behaviors to match those around them, such as eating, sleeping, or playing at the same time as their packmates. Mimicry of body language, including facial expressions is common in friendly interactions and is used in building and maintaining healthy relationships. One way to detect whether a wink is intentional or not is to read the context and watch for the dog to “hold the blink”. Intentional blinking used for communication is often performed in an exaggerated fashion.
Dogs are incredibly smart creatures – they are experts at connecting behaviors that get them a reward. Your dog may pick up on your excitement when they wink at you, and they may repeat this behavior in the future to get your attention and possibly a treat reward. You can also train your dog to wink on command. Start by rewarding your dog for winking behavior. You may need to trigger your dog to wink in order to give a reward. Do so by gently touching their whiskers on the side of their muzzle (the same side that you want them to wink with). As soon as your dog winks, praise them and give them a treat, pets, or some play time with their favorite toy. Use whatever reward your dog responds best to. A clicker can come in handy for capturing the exact moment that your dog blinks, so they know exactly what they are getting rewarded for. Repeat this process until your dog has created a strong link between winking and getting a reward. Then add a verbal cue (such as “wink” or “flirt”) each time you ask for a wink. Over time, your dog will associate the cue with winking and getting a reward.
Winking can be an incredibly cute behavior that our dogs perform. It’s often a positive sign that our dogs want to be our friend, and that they are relaxed around us. However, excessive winking behavior could be a sign that our dog is suffering from a health condition that requires veterinary treatment. Blepharospasm, the spasm, twitch, or quick blinking or winking of the eyelid may be caused by the following conditions:
If you notice your dog blinking or winking a lot, especially accompanied with scratching at the eye area or rubbing their face on furniture or the ground, please seek veterinary treatment immediately. Look for any eye discharge or redness of the eye. Most ailments can be corrected with use of eye drops or ointments, however some may require surgery such as entropion (Read and Broun, 2007).
Possibly the best way to respond to a dog’s wink is to wink back! This signals to the dog that you similarly are non-threatening and wish to maintain a peaceful relationship. You can also praise your dog or reward them for the friendly communication. Try to avoid staring back at your dog with direct eye contact as they may be perceiving you as a threat (even if that was not your intention).
In summary, winking behavior in dogs is most likely just another way in which our furry friends can communicate with us. It likely means that our dogs are friendly and feeling happy or content. Winking may also be used to strengthen social bonds or as a way to gain attention from humans. In some cases, winking may also be a sign of eye irritation or discomfort and veterinary treatment should be sought to prevent any long-term ill effects. Thankfully, most eye issues can be treated easily if caught early.
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
Works Cited
Aloff, B. (2018). Canine body language: a photographic guide. Dogwise Publishing.
Diogo, R., Wood, B. A., Aziz, M. A., & Burrows, A. (2009). On the origin, homologies and evolution of primate facial muscles, with a particular focus on hominoids and a suggested unifying nomenclature for the facial muscles of the Mammalia. Journal of Anatomy, 215(3), 300-319.
Gähwiler, S., Bremhorst, A., Tóth, K., & Riemer, S. (2020). Fear expressions of dogs during New Year fireworks: a video analysis. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 1-10.
Helper, L. C., & Magrane, W. G. (1970). Ectopic cilia of the canine eyelid. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 11(3), 185-189.
Kaminski, J., Hynds, J., Morris, P., & Waller, B. M. (2017). Human attention affects facial expressions in domestic dogs. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 1-7.
Read, R. A., & Broun, H. C. (2007). Entropion correction in dogs and cats using a combination Hotz–Celsus and lateral eyelid wedge resection: results in 311 eyes. Veterinary ophthalmology, 10(1), 6-11.
]]>Most people would agree that dogs are a fairly intelligent species. They can be easily trained, adapt well to living in our homes, are naturally curious, and can be extremely clever. In a survey conducted of dog owners, about 50% of individuals believed that a dog’s mental ability is comparable to a 3-5-year-old human child. In the same study, a quarter of the respondents agreed that dogs were smarter than most people (Howell et al., 2013). But how do we measure the intelligence of dogs? How can we figure out what is going on in their heads if they cannot speak to us?
The study of animal intelligence is difficult. It is subjective and the tests we use to measure intelligence can be extremely biased. Dutch biologist, Frans de Waal (2016), famously published a book titled “Are We Smart Enough to Know How Smart Animals Are?” in which he explored the complexities of animal cognition. The book discusses how we might be underestimating how smart animals are due to our own inability as humans to design appropriate tests of intelligence. While there are shortcomings to how we measure how smart animals are, there are some well established cognitive tests that researchers have employed to understand what cognitive abilities animals have such as whether they have self-awareness or the ability to create and use tools to solve complex problems.
Dogs are often perceived as having higher-level cognitive skills than other animals. This is thought to be due to the strong personal relationship that humans have formed with dogs. One researcher found that owners that were more attached to their dogs perceived their dogs as being smarter (Serpell, 1996). Stanley Coren (2006) believes that intelligence can be classified into three categories: instinctive intelligence, adaptive intelligence, and working and obedience intelligence. Instinctive intelligence is the intelligence that dogs are born with. These are genetic differences that make some dogs better at hunting, some better at guarding, and others as great loveable family dogs. Adaptive intelligence is the dog’s ability to learn. This category of intelligence would include things such as ability to perform certain tasks and comprehend language. Finally, working and obedience intelligence is what we would consider ‘school-learning’ ability, that is, what the dog can learn to do through instruction by people.
There are many dimensions to cognitive ability in dogs. The following are a list of abilities that we can study and measure to gain insight into the inner workings of a dog’s mind (Garcia, 2015).
Dogs are incredibly talented at reading gestures provided by humans to locate hidden food. Few animals instinctively pick up on the meaning of human pointing gestures without training. Dogs are one of them. Seals, dogs, and cats are very skillful at understanding pointing gestures, while somewhat surprisingly, wolves do not seem to make the same connection (Miklósi and Soproni, 2006). It has been argued that domestication has allowed for the selection for animals that are better able to comprehend human communicative signals.
It has been shown that dogs have the ability to discriminate between attentive and inattentive humans. By reading the orientation of the body, the head, and the visibility of the eyes dogs can deduce whether the human is watching them or not. Across different situations, dogs have been shown to be more flexible at recognizing human attention than chimpanzees (Gácsi et al., 2004).
Social learning is the ability to learn through observation of other individuals. There are many studies showing dogs with the ability to learn in this way. In one example, dogs were able to learn the detour around a V-shaped fence after observing an unfamiliar human or a dog demonstrator (Pongrácz et al., 2008). Dogs have been shown to develop food preferences through social learning (Kubinyi et al., 2009). Another study showed that young Dachshund puppies were able to learn a food-obtaining task through object manipulation by observing one of their littermates successfully perform that task (Adler and Alder, 1977).
Means-end awareness is tested by giving an animal several options, with one having a physical connection to a reward. This is often performed using a string-pulling task, where one of the strings is tied to a piece of food out of reach. The animal must pull the correct string in order to obtain the food. Research has demonstrated that dogs are able to complete this task (Range et al., 2011).
Another common indicator of higher cognitive functioning is the ability to craft or use tools. There are a few observational studies suggesting that dogs are capable of tool use. In one observation, a dog learned (without training) to move objects around its enclosure in order to obtain objects out of reach. A second observation involved an adult male dog that learned to open a gate to gain access to a female (Smith et al., 2012).
Research suggests that dogs are not great at picking up on deception from humans (Petter et al., 2009). Think of how easy it is to trick a dog by pretending to throw their ball. However, there is research indicating that dogs have the ability to deceive humans and other dogs. It is thought that by deceiving others, more subordinate individuals can gain a competitive advantage (Heberlein et al., 2017).
A famous measure of cognition is the mirror self-recognition test. If animals are able to connect that they are the ones in their reflection, we conclude that the animals are self-aware. Results of the mirror test in dogs have been mixed. This test’s accuracy has been questioned for use in dogs, mainly since dogs are more focused on olfactory cues, as opposed to visual cues which are heavily relied on in this test. When dogs were tested in a scent-based (urine) self-recognition test, evidence showed that dogs did indeed recognize themselves (Bekoff, 2001).
This might seem like a no-brainer to dog owners, but scientific studies have been conducted that show dogs have empathy towards human emotions. In one study, dogs were found to match their emotional state to the emotional sounds of humans and other dogs (Huber et al., 2017). Another study found that dogs showed comforting behaviors towards people that were crying or upset (Custance and Mayer, 2012).
There are many ways that you can gauge your dog’s intelligence at home. These mainly consist of presenting our dog with small challenges and seeing how they manage. Keep in mind that dogs, just like people, will likely perform excellent in some areas, and struggle in others. Being great at a single test does not necessarily mean that that dog is smarter than a dog that struggles in the same area. Additionally, while these tests can often be a fun challenge for our dogs, they can be mentally taxing – so limit how much testing you do in a day!
Since dogs are inquisitive and adaptable animals, they can be effectively trained to perform numerous tasks. Most people begin by teaching their dog basic obedience. From there, they may start to teach their dog some fun tricks. More advanced dogs may be taught the names of objects and can fetch them on command. Dogs can also be trained to perform specific services for society. Since dogs have such a strong sense of smell, many dogs have been trained to aid security and police in the detection of bomb or drugs. Of course, there are also service dogs. Service dogs can be trained to perform specific tasks, such as guide dogs, to aid individuals with disabilities. Dogs can also be trained to assist us with hunting or herding livestock.
As previously discussed in this article, there are different classifications of intelligence – instinctive, adaptive, and working/obedience intelligence. This means that there are likely to be differences between breeds in their perceived intelligence. For instance, terrier breeds are generally going to be better at hunting small animals, while bloodhounds might be better at finding things using their noses. Dogs specifically bred for hunting are likely to be better at detecting prey and assisting their owners. Breeds bred to be service dogs might be more willing to please and easier to train. Whereas breeds bred to be companion animals may be more sociable and possibly more attune to communication from their humans. Since breeds vary so much, it is impossible to compare their intelligence. Many rankings of intelligence by breed that is available online are biased because they only examine a single facet of intelligence.
Dogs are incredibly smart animals and it is one of the reasons we love them so much as companions. Their close relationship with humans as they have evolved have helped them become attuned to our communication styles and our emotions. They are also incredibly adaptable animals which helps them be great learners and problem solvers.
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
Works Cited
Adler, L. L., & Adler, H. E. (1977). Ontogeny of observational learning in the dog (Canis familiaris). Developmental Psychobiology: The Journal of the International Society for Developmental Psychobiology, 10(3), 267-271.
Bekoff, M. (2001). Observations of scent-marking and discriminating self from others by a domestic dog (Canis familiaris): tales of displaced yellow snow. Behavioural processes, 55(2), 75-79.
Coren, S. (2006). The intelligence of dogs: A guide to the thoughts, emotions, and inner lives of our canine companions. Simon and Schuster.
Custancered, D., & Mayer, J. (2012). Empathic-like responding by domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) to distress in humans: an exploratory study. Animal cognition, 15(5), 851-859.
De Waal, F. (2016). Are we smart enough to know how smart animals are?. WW Norton & Company.
Gácsi, M., Miklósi, Á., Varga, O., Topál, J., & Csányi, V. (2004). Are readers of our face readers of our minds? Dogs (Canis familiaris) show situation-dependent recognition of human’s attention. Animal cognition, 7(3), 144-153.
Garcia, Jennifer L,D.V.M., D.A.C.V.I.M. (2015). Canine intelligence from the pet owner's perspective-and why we need to care. Veterinary Medicine, 110(3), 74.
Heberlein, M. T., Manser, M. B., & Turner, D. C. (2017). Deceptive-like behaviour in dogs (Canis familiaris). Animal Cognition, 20(3), 511-520.
Howell, T. J., Toukhsati, S., Conduit, R., & Bennett, P. (2013). The perceptions of dog intelligence and cognitive skills (PoDIaCS) survey. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 8(6), 418-424.
Huber, A., Barber, A. L., Faragó, T., Müller, C. A., & Huber, L. (2017). Investigating emotional contagion in dogs (Canis familiaris) to emotional sounds of humans and conspecifics. Animal Cognition, 20(4), 703-715.
Kaminski, J., Call, J., & Fischer, J. (2004). Word learning in a domestic dog: evidence for" fast mapping". Science, 304(5677), 1682-1683.
Kubinyi, E., Pongrácz, P., & Miklósi, Á. (2009). Dog as a model for studying conspecific and heterospecific social learning. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 4(1), 31-41.
Miklósi, Á., & Soproni, K. (2006). A comparative analysis of animals' understanding of the human pointing gesture. Animal cognition, 9(2), 81-93.
Pattison, K. F., Miller, H. C., Rayburn-Reeves, R., & Zentall, T. (2010). The case of the disappearing bone: Dogs’ understanding of the physical properties of objects. Behavioural Processes, 85(3), 278-282.
Petter, M., Musolino, E., Roberts, W. A., & Cole, M. (2009). Can dogs (Canis familiaris) detect human deception?. Behavioural Processes, 82(2), 109-118.
Pongrácz, P., Vida, V., Bánhegyi, P., & Miklósi, Á. (2008). How does dominance rank status affect individual and social learning performance in the dog (Canis familiaris)?. Animal Cognition, 11(1), 75-82.
Range, F., Hentrup, M., & Virányi, Z. (2011). Dogs are able to solve a means-end task. Animal Cognition, 14(4), 575-583.
Serpell, J. A. (1996). Evidence for an association between pet behavior and owner attachment levels. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 47(1-2), 49-60.
Smith, B. P., Appleby, R. G., & Litchfield, C. A. (2012). Spontaneous tool-use: an observation of a dingo (Canis dingo) using a table to access an out-of-reach food reward. Behavioural Processes, 89(3), 219-224.
]]>The invention of the dog whistle can be traced back to Francis Galton in 1876 (Joyce and Baker, 2011). Galton was conducting research on the hearing range of humans and had developed a whistle with a slide that allowed him to easily control the pitch of the sound produced. He would adjust the whistle until he landed upon a pitch that a person could hear. After testing on humans, Galton expanded his research to test the hearing ability of animals, including dogs. Since dogs can’t talk, Galton would use the dog’s reactions to the whistle to determine the pitch the dog could hear. Results from Galton’s tests indicated that dogs could hear much higher frequencies than humans. Many versions of similar, high pitched and often adjustable whistles are used today when working with dogs.
If you’re like me, the thought of a dog whistle conjures up images of a dog returning gleefully to their owner when they blow on an almost magical silent whistle. While this is one potential use of a dog whistle, getting a dog to return at the blow of the whistle requires training. Whistles are commonly used for two main purposes with dogs. First, whistles may be used as a training aid. The sound of a dog whistle can travel upwards of 400 yards making them a great tool for training out in the field. The use of a whistle during training has a long tradition in the United Kingdom where farmers use them while working with their herding dogs (McConnell and Baylis, 1985). This training has been adopted by others such as Australian dog handlers in which 43.9% report using a whistle during training (Payne et al., 2015).The high frequency of the whistles makes them less likely to annoy nearby people or to spook wildlife. Dog whistles can be easily incorporated into positive reinforcement training and are supported by respected dog professionals. On the other hand, when dog whistles are used at a high frequency in close proximity of a dog can cause discomfort. The second major use of a dog whistle is as a form of punishment, either for unwanted behaviors such as barking or to try to scare an aggressive dog away.
Dog whistles work wonderfully as a training aid when used properly. On the other hand, their use as a form of punishment is debated, both in its efficacy and its ethicality. A critical aspect to using a dog whistle is ensuring that your dog can hear its sound. A dog’s hearing abilities depend on their breed and age. Many dog whistles are adjustable for this reason. In general, smaller dogs are better at hearing higher frequencies than larger dogs. Whistles should be adjusted for each dog on an individual basis. You can determine the optimal frequency for your dog by slowly adjusting the whistle until your dog responds to it, either by turning their head in the direction of the whistle or by reliably twitching their ear when you blow the whistle. Another test is to start when the dog is asleep and determine which frequency will wake the dog up. Finally, whistles will only work if quality training is invested alongside their use. Afterall, whistles are a tool to accompany training, not a replacement for it.
The affect a dog whistle has on a dog is largely related to how it’s used. If your dog has been trained to associate the whistle with receiving an award, the sound of the whistle becomes a positive stimulus and can lead to happiness or excitement. However, if the whistle is used as a form of punishment the dog may react adversely to its sound. Some dogs, regardless of the context, may find the sound of whistles to be too intense and will become fearful when they are used.
While we often think about dog whistles as being completely inaudible to humans, this isn’t always the case. The upper limit of a human’s hearing range is 20 kHz in children and 15 kHz in adults. Dogs can hear upwards of 45 kHz (Krantz, 2009). It is believed that dogs evolved this excellent sense of hearing so they could hear the high-frequency sounds emitted by their prey, such as small rodents (Krantz, 2009). The frequencies of most dog whistles range from 23 to 54 kHz (Coile and Bonham, 2009). This means that when a whistle is set to its lower frequencies, they may be audible to humans. In many cases though, they will sound more like a quiet hissing that an actual whistle to us (Weisbord and Kachanoff, 2002).
Dog whistles, when used improperly, can cause pain or hearing damage to dogs as well as to humans. Since many are out of our hearing range, we may underestimate how loud the sound is to our dogs. High intensity sound is well known to cause injury to the inner ear. This may result from a single loud blast of sound, or repeated exposure to high intensity sound. High frequencies are known to be more damaging than lower frequencies. In one study, a hunter who frequently used a dog whistle while working with his dogs was found to suffer from auditory “stuffiness” and ringing in his ears for several hours after use. Over several years of this exposure, the hunter developed mild, permanent hearing loss (Schuknecht and Van Den Ende, 1961). Based on this knowledge, dog whistles should be used with care to protect the hearing of our dogs and us. Never blow the whistle loudly in close proximity to your dog’s ears. Always remember that what may only sound like a quiet hissing to you may sound like a shrill, piercing sound to your four-legged friend.
When whistles are used as a conditioned reinforcer (i.e. they have been paired with a positive reward) they can be a great training aid to signal to the dog that they are doing the right thing. Dog whistles can be used just like a clicker. The trainer would use the sound signal (either the whistle or a click) and then immediately reward the dog with a treat, verbal praise, petting, or play time. Whistles are commonly used for positive reinforcement training in zoos, especially with marine mammals. You’ve probably seen them used by dolphin trainers (Pryor, 2000).
Some advantages of using dog whistles for training include:
It should be noted that whistles can be intense sometimes, especially when used at a high frequency setting. Consider using a lower frequency whistle when training. They may be audible to humans but are less likely to cause pain or hearing damage. Additionally, whistles may be too intense for some dogs and may invoke fear. In these cases, consider using a clicker or other signals such as a finger snap, mouth click, verbal ‘good’ or ‘yes!’ during training instead (Feng et al., 2017).
It should be considered inappropriate to use dog whistles as a form of punishment. Some sources recommend dog whistles as a way to make a dog stop barking, to stop aggressive behavior, or to discourage unwanted or annoying behaviour. In these cases, the whistle would be used in a manner to create discomfort or pain for the dog, causing them to stop what they’re doing or to attempt to distance themselves from the sound. There are better ways to deal with problem behaviors than causing pain, and therefore dog whistles used in this way should be considered inappropriate. In addition to whistles being inhumane when used for punishment, in many cases they are not effective. Some peoples have experienced an increase in negative behaviors when using a whistle. For instance, when using a whistle to stop a dog’s barking, you take the risk that the high intensity sound may actually trigger more barking to occur.
In summary, dog whistles may be a bit different than what we might think of. Some are silent, while others are completely audible to humans. When used as positive reinforcement during training, they can be great training aids that allow handlers to work with dogs from a distance while keeping their hands free. Like any tool, whistles can be used improperly. Whistles should never be used as a form of punishment as they can cause pain or hearing loss.
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
Works Cited
Coile, D. C., & Bonham, M. H. (2009). Why do dogs like balls? ; more than 200 canine quirks, curiosities, and conundrums revealed. New York, NY: Sterling.
Feng, L. C., Howell, T. J., & Bennett, P. C. (2017). Comparing trainers’ reports of clicker use to the use of clickers in applied research studies: methodological differences may explain conflicting results.
Joyce, N., & Baker, D. B. (2011). The Galton Whistle. APS Observer, 22(3).
Krantz, L. (2009). Power of the Dog: Things Your Dog Can Do That You Can't. Macmillan.
McConnell, P. B., & Baylis, J. R. (1985). Interspecific communication in cooperative herding: acoustic and visual signals from human shepherds and herding dogs. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 67(1‐4), 302-328.
Payne, E. M., Arnott, E. R., Early, J. B., Bennett, P. C., & McGreevy, P. D. (2015). Dogmanship on the farm: Analysis of personality dimensions and training styles of stock dog handlers in Australia. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 10(6), 471-478.
Pryor, K. (2000). A dog and a dolphin: Training without punishment. In A. Rebmann & E. David, Cadaver dog handbook: forensic training and tactics for the recovery of human remains (pp. 26-34). CRC Press.
Schuknecht, H. F., & Van Den Ende, H. (1961). Acoustic trauma from a dog training whistle. Henry Ford Hospital Medical Journal, 9(3), 374-378.
Weisbord, M., & Kachanoff, K. (2002). Dogs with jobs: Working dogs around the world. Toronto: CNIB.
]]>Our lives are significantly enriched through the presence of dogs. There are currently over 76 million dogs residing in the United States across 48 million households (AVMA, 2018). In addition to being our companions, dogs also serve individuals and our society as a whole through many working roles. Despite how wonderful dogs are, many end up in shelters for a variety of reasons. It is estimated that around 3.3 million dogs enter shelters annually (Shelter Animals Count, 2016).
National Dog Day is a day set aside to celebrate the important roles dogs play in our lives as well as to encourage responsible dog ownership to reduce the number of dogs that end up in shelters. In 2013 National Dog Day was officially adopted into New York State Legislation, however it is celebrated across the nation. National Dog Day aims to honor both family and working dogs for all of the roles they play in our lives and society. This day celebrates dogs of all breeds, both mixed and pure, and hopes to raise awareness of the number of dogs in public shelters and dog rescues that are waiting for loving homes. A few major impacts that dogs have on our lives include:
Dogs contribute positively to their owner’s emotional and social well-being. Owning a dog can provide comfort and help reduce feelings of loneliness. They can also provide stress relief and an opportunity to nurture others (Sable, 1995). Dogs’ positive effect on mental health has even been employed in the medical field. An example of this was a project that provided patients with a dog to help encourage mobility, interpersonal contact, and communication, as well as to reinforce personal hygiene and self-care in patients with schizophrenia (Barak et al., 2001).
Research has shown that dogs help promote positive neighborhood interactions and a sense of community (Graham and Glover, 2014; Bulsara et al., 2007; Wood et al., 2007). Dogs provide a common interest within communities and foster information sharing, social interactions, and civic engagement. The presence of dogs in neighborhoods can also affect the perceptions of a neighborhood’s friendliness and sense of community (Wood et al., 2007). Places like dog parks, animal shelters, local pet shops help create social bonds within towns and cities.
There is also a great deal of evidence suggesting that owning a dog can be good for your physical health. Dog owners have been shown to walk significantly more than non-owners. They also had lower serum triglycerides (Dembicki and Anderson, 1996). Another study found that patients with coronary artery disease that also owned pets survived longer (Friedmann and Thomas, 1995). Another study examined long term health effects of dog owners and found that dog ownership comprehensively improved many aspects of their health (Serpell, 1991).
Dogs also play a significant role in society outside of being family pets. Many dogs assist people with disabilities or act as therapy animals. Dogs even serve on police teams to offer protection and to help sniff out substances or dangerous materials. They can help find missing people and work to keep large groups of people safe. Dogs can also serve as hunting partners or may serve as livestock guardians.
An animal rescue advocate and pet lifestyle expert named Colleen Paige created National Dog Day in 2004 (National Dog Day, n.d.). Colleen is also a conservationist, dog trainer, and author with an interest in improving the lives of all animals – not just dogs. She has helped found a number of other holidays including National Wildlife Day, National Cat Day, and National Mutt Day, all with the goal to raise public awareness towards important issues facing animals.
August 26th is the official day dedicated to celebrating National Dog Day. This date was chosen by Colleen as this is the date that her family adopted their first dog from a local animal shelter when she was 10 years old (National Dog Day, n.d.). She hopes this day can help encourage other families to make the decision to adopt a dog in need instead of buying from questionable sources.
This holiday was created to help discourage people from purchasing dogs from pet stores, which are often supplied by puppy mills, or from backyard breeders (e.g. from advertisements placed in newspapers or online). Instead, National Dog Day aims to inform the public about the number of dogs in rescues or shelters that need a home. They encourage people to adopt from shelters, mixed or purebred rescues, or to check out your local pet store chain that often host adoption events. They also encourage those that choose to purchase from a breeder to do thorough research to make sure that they are reputable. Check to make sure they have appropriate licenses and consider reaching out to the local vet or individuals that adopted dogs in the past to get honest reviews.
In addition, the founders of National Dog Day strongly encourage future dog owners to educate themselves on the breed they are interested in to make sure they will be a good fit for their lifestyle. Things to consider include the dog’s grooming needs, how much they shed, their exercise needs, their mental stimulation needs, dietary needs, their prey drive, the breed’s propensity to bark, as well as if there are any health issues the breed is susceptible to. It is also important that dogs are never given as a gift unless the recipient has been involved in the process and is ready for the commitment. By helping people make informed decisions before bringing a dog home, the number of dogs that end up surrendered to shelters can be reduced.
National Dog Day should be celebrated by paying tribute to the dogs in our lives and society, as well as promoting dog adoption from shelters and rescues. The following are some ideas for how to participate:
While there is not an official International Dog Day, many other countries have joined in on the celebration of National Dog Day in the United States. Networks of dog shelters and rescues have joined forces across the world to raise awareness of the need for responsible dog ownership and to encourage adoption of dogs needing a home.
Make sure to mark your calendars for August 26th so you do not miss the celebration! Dogs do so much for us, it is important to set aside time to thank them. Make a plan to support your local dog shelter in any way that you can and if you are a lucky dog owner – spend some extra special time with your furry companion.
Petozy is a brand dedicated to pet and pet parent happiness. Learn more about us here.
Works Cited
AVMA. (2018). US pet ownership & demographics sourcebook (2012). J Am Vet Med Assoc, 253(3), 264-264.
Barak, Y., Savorai, O., Mavashev, S., & Beni, A. (2001). Animal-assisted therapy for elderly schizophrenic patients: a one-year controlled trial. The American journal of geriatric psychiatry, 9(4), 439-442.
Bulsara, M., Wood, L., Giles-Corti, B., & Bosch, D. (2007). More than a furry companion: The ripple effect of companion animals on neighborhood interactions and sense of community. Society & Animals, 15(1), 43-56.
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]]>Our relationship with our pet dogs can be enhanced with training. Training can prevent problem behaviors, set boundaries within our homes, and make walks and handling easier. Moreover, training is a fun activity to do with your dog. Trained dogs can also have positive impacts on society. Working dogs can be taught to assist people, guard livestock, provide therapy, help with search and rescue missions, and much more. The ability of dogs to learn and understand specific skills and behaviors from humans highlight the unique bond that people share with dogs.
Records of humans training dogs date back to Roman times where tips on training dogs for herding livestock were documented. These documents emphasized the value of early training – something we still promote to this day. Fast forward to the 19th century, books were written describing training techniques for hunting dogs, particularly pointers and setters. These documents promote the use of reward-based training which we now know as being the most effective method for dog training.
During the war years, dogs were valued assets and were trained to assist the war effort, especially in Germany. Later on, this training was applied to service dogs (such as guide dogs for people who are blind). Training manuals from this time promoted the understanding and use of a dog’s natural behavior and instincts and demonstrated an early understanding of operant conditioning. Training of dogs continues to advance in the 21st century and popularity of the topic has reached mainstream media, evident by many successful TV shows.
Absolutely! Any breed of dog, from the tiniest Chihuahua to the giant Great Dane, can be trained. Breeds may have different reputations regarding their behavior, instincts, and their perceived intelligence. This means that the training methods used will also vary from dog to dog. An individual dog’s traits will determine which training methods are most effective and may also dictate things such as the ideal training reward or the appropriate duration of training sessions. Dogs with a willingness to please and a strong motivation to work for food typically are the least challenging to train. Dogs that are fearful or easily distracted may present some challenges. But they are still entirely able to be trained using the correct methods!
The best time to start training a dog is when they are a puppy. The second-best time is now! Dogs are capable of learning throughout their entire lives but will benefit the most from early training. A study found that dogs that received professional training before 3 years of age were more trainable than dogs that did not (Kubinyi et al., 2009). From the minute dogs are born, they begin learning about their environment. Socialization practices should begin within a few days after birth and should continue into adulthood. This includes providing controlled and positive exposure of the dog to people, other animals, and experiences that the dog will likely encounter throughout their life. Dogs that were properly socialized early in life are less likely to be aggressive or fearful as they age (Howell et al., 2013). While dogs are able to be taught new tricks at any age, a dog’s ease of training can be impacted by early training experience.
Dogs learn from a variety of methods. They can form associations between two stimuli through a process called classical conditioning. An example of this includes a dog getting excited for a walk when they see you put your shoes on and grab the leash. They may learn through non-associated learning where a behavior is modified through habituation or sensitization. Habituation is when a dog’s response lessens over repeated exposure whereas sensitization is when their response becomes heighted from repeated exposure. Operant conditioning is when dogs learn to associate their behavior with its consequence. Dogs can also learn through social learning in which they observe someone demonstrating a behavior and are rewarded for repeating it. This is sometimes referred to as the “do as I do” method (Fugazza and Miklósi, 2015).
The concepts underlying operant conditioning can be boiled down into either reinforcing wanted behaviors or ignoring or punishing unwanted behaviors. Behaviors are reinforced if we want the behavior to occur more often. They are punished if we want to reduce or eliminate their occurrence. These reinforcements and punishments can be either positive or negative depending on whether or not a stimulus was presented (positive) or removed (negative). This leads us to the four main categories of training:
It’s well agreed upon by behavior experts that positive reinforcement is the ideal training method. Dogs whose owners train using rewards tend to perform better in novel training tasks and are more playful (Rooney and Cowan, 2011). This suggests that dogs trained using positive reinforcement are more relaxed and comfortable when interacting with their trainer and will therefore produce better results. Use of punishment is controversial for a number of reasons including its humaneness as well as its effectiveness. Punishment has been shown to be associated with an increased incidence of problematic behaviors and often results in poor obedience results (Hiby et al., 2004).
Dog training is about more than just teaching your dog to sit. The following are situations in which dogs are trained to help them make better behaved pets or to benefit society.
Incentives may include food, treats, verbal praise, playing with a toy, or being allowed to sniff their environment. The type of incentive to use with your dog depends on what motivates them. Some dogs are extremely food motivated and will enthusiastically work to obtain treats. Other dogs are not as interested in food and would rather play with a toy with their handler. Finding rewards that motivate your dog is critical to successful training. Some people will use a clicker to aid in training. The sound of the click is paired with a reward. The dog is rewarded with the click and will then know that a reward is on the way. Clickers allow trainers to reward the dog at the exact instance in which the appropriate behavior was performed.
To help set yourself up for success in training you should make sure you have a basic understanding of training theory. You should also be familiar with the dog’s attributes and their personality so you can use rewards that your dog finds motivating. It is also important to practice timing of the reinforcement and to make sure you are consistent in your communication with your dogs. Training will be most successful when you are predictable and trustworthy for your dog (Yin, 2007).
Professional trainers should be consulted if your dog has developed a behavior problem or if your dog is a potential danger. Examples of situations when a professional trainer is recommended include resource guarding of food or toys, separation anxiety, nipping and growling, or severe fear or shyness. Professional help can also greatly benefit dogs that pull on the leash, are door-dashers, or dogs that jump on people. Individuals that are new to training can also benefit from working with a professional trainer. After all, a large chunk of a trainer’s job is developing a plan and teaching the owner how to implement it. Trainers can also provide a great resource for socializing a puppy and should be considered by anyone with a young dog.
Basic understating of learning theory paired with consistent leadership will lead to great success when training your dog. By keeping training sessions fun and positive you can improve the relationship with your dog while simultaneously modifying their behavior for the better.
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Works Cited
Fugazza, C., & Miklósi, Á. (2015). Social learning in dog training: The effectiveness of the Do as I do method compared to shaping/clicker training. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 171, 146-151.
Hiby, E. F., Rooney, N. J., & Bradshaw, J. W. S. (2004). Dog training methods: their use, effectiveness and interaction with behaviour and welfare. Animal Welfare-Potters Bar Then Wheathampstead-, 13(1), 63-70.
Hill, L. (2020). Becoming the person your dog thinks you are: An assessment of Florida prison-based dog training programs on postrelease recidivism. Corrections, 5(3), 149-169.
Howell, T. J., King, T., & Bennett, P. C. (2015). Puppy parties and beyond: the role of early age socialization practices on adult dog behavior. Veterinary Medicine: Research and Reports, 6, 143.
Kubinyi, E., Turcsán, B., & Miklósi, Á. (2009). Dog and owner demographic characteristics and dog personality trait associations. Behavioural Processes, 81(3), 392-401.
Rooney, N. J., & Cowan, S. (2011). Training methods and owner–dog interactions: Links with dog behaviour and learning ability. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 132(3-4), 169-177.
Yin, S. (2007). Dominance versus leadership in dog training. Compendium On Continuing Education For The Practising Veterinarian-North American Edition-, 29(7), 414.
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